Anthropology

===Medical, nutritional, psychological, cognitive and transpersonal===
{{Medical anthropology}}

==== Medical ====
{{main|Medical anthropology}}

Medical anthropology is an interdisciplinary field which studies "human health and disease, health care systems, and biocultural adaptation".<ref name=McElroy1996>{{Cite book |year=1996 |author=McElroy, A |chapter=Medical Anthropology |editor1=D. Levinson |editor2=M. Ember |title=Encyclopedia of Cultural Anthropology |chapter-url=http://www.univie.ac.at/ethnomedicine/PDF/Medical%20Anthropologie.pdf |access-date=2 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121001162708/http://www.univie.ac.at/ethnomedicine/PDF/Medical%20Anthropologie.pdf |archive-date=1 October 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> It is believed that William Caudell was the first to discover the field of medical anthropology. Currently, research in medical anthropology is one of the main growth areas in the field of anthropology as a whole. It focuses on the following six basic fields:<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Campbell|first=Dave|date=24 October 2016|title=Anthropology's Contribution to Public Health Policy Development|journal=McGill Journal of Medicine|volume=13|issue=1|page=76|issn=1201-026X|pmc=3277334|pmid=22363184}}</ref>

* The development of systems of medical knowledge and medical care
* The patient-physician relationship
* The integration of alternative medical systems in culturally diverse environments
* The interaction of social, environmental and biological factors which influence health and illness both in the individual and the community as a whole
* The critical analysis of interaction between psychiatric services and migrant populations ("critical ethnopsychiatry": Beneduce 2004, 2007)
* The impact of biomedicine and biomedical technologies in non-Western settings

Other subjects that have become central to medical anthropology worldwide are violence and social suffering (Farmer, 1999, 2003; Beneduce, 2010) as well as other issues that involve physical and psychological harm and suffering that are not a result of illness. On the other hand, there are fields that intersect with medical anthropology in terms of research methodology and theoretical production, such as ''cultural psychiatry'' and ''transcultural psychiatry'' or ''ethnopsychiatry''.

==== Nutritional ====
{{main|Nutritional anthropology}}

Nutritional anthropology is a synthetic concept that deals with the interplay between [[economic systems]], [[nutrition|nutritional status]] and [[food security]], and how changes in the former affect the latter. If economic and environmental changes in a community affect access to food, food security, and dietary health, then this interplay between culture and biology is in turn connected to broader historical and [[economic history|economic trends]] associated with globalization. Nutritional status affects overall health status, work performance potential, and the overall potential for economic development (either in terms of human development or traditional western models) for any given group of people.

==== Psychological ====
{{main|Psychological anthropology}}
Psychological anthropology is an interdisciplinary subfield of anthropology that studies the interaction of [[cultural anthropology|cultural]] and [[psychology|mental processes]]. This subfield tends to focus on ways in which humans' development and [[enculturation]] within a particular cultural group&nbsp;– with its own history, language, practices, and conceptual categories&nbsp;– shape processes of human [[cognition]], [[emotion]], [[perception]], [[motivation]], and [[mental health]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=LeVine, R. A., Norman, K.|date=2001|title=The infant's acquisition of culture: Early attachment reexamined in anthropological perspective|journal=Publications – Society for Psychological Anthropology|volume=12|pages=83–104}}</ref> It also examines how the understanding of cognition, emotion, motivation, and similar psychological processes inform or constrain our models of cultural and social processes.<ref name="D'Andrade">{{cite book | last=D'Andrade | first=R. | chapter=The Sad Story of Anthropology: 1950–1999 | editor-first=E.L. | editor-last=Cerroni-Long | title=Anthropological Theory in North America | isbn=978-0-89789-685-6 | location=Westport | publisher=Berin & Garvey | year=1999 | chapter-url-access=registration | chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/anthropologicalt0000unse | url-access=registration | url=https://archive.org/details/anthropologicalt0000unse }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | editor = Schwartz, T. |editor2=G.M. White |display-editors=etal | date = 1992 | title = New Directions in Psychological Anthropology | location = Cambridge, UK | publisher = Cambridge University Press}}</ref>

==== Cognitive ====
{{main|Cognitive anthropology}}
Cognitive anthropology seeks to explain patterns of shared knowledge, cultural [[innovation]], and transmission over time and space using the methods and [[theories]] of the [[cognitive sciences]] (especially [[experimental psychology]] and [[evolutionary biology]]) often through close collaboration with historians, ethnographers, archaeologists, linguists, musicologists and other specialists engaged in the description and [[interpretation (logic)|interpretation]] of cultural forms. Cognitive anthropology is concerned with what people from different groups know and how that implicit knowledge changes the way people perceive and relate to the world around them.<ref name="D'Andrade"/>

==== Transpersonal ====
{{main|Transpersonal anthropology}}
Transpersonal anthropology studies the relationship between [[altered states of consciousness]] and culture. As with [[transpersonal psychology]], the field is much concerned with altered states of consciousness (ASC) and [[transpersonal experience]]. However, the field differs from mainstream transpersonal psychology in taking more cognizance of cross-cultural issues – for instance, the roles of [[Mythology|myth]], [[ritual]], [[diet (nutrition)|diet]], and [[Literature|text]] in evoking and interpreting extraordinary experiences.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schroll, M. A., & Schwartz, S. A.|date=2005|title=Whither Psi and Anthropology? An Incomplete History of SAC's Origins, Its Relationship with Transpersonal Psychology and the Untold Stories of Castaneda's Controversy|journal=Anthropology of Consciousness|volume=16|pages=6–24|doi=10.1525/ac.2005.16.1.6}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | last1=Young | first1=David E. | first2=J.G. | last2=Goulet | date=1994 | title=Being Changed by Cross-cultural Encounters: The Anthropology of Extraordinary Experiences | publisher=Peterborough: Broadview Press}}</ref>
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