Middle Ages Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! ===Technology and military=== {{further|List of medieval European scientists|military of the Mongol Empire}} [[File:Tommaso da modena, ritratti di domenicani (Ugo di Provenza) 1352 150cm, treviso, ex convento di san niccolò, sala del capitolo.jpg|thumb|alt=A middle aged man wearing a hat is writing a book using a pair of glasses|Portrait of Cardinal [[Hugh of Saint-Cher]] (d. 1263) by [[Tommaso da Modena]] (1352), the first known (although anachronistic) depiction of [[spectacles]]]] Technology developed mainly through minor innovations and by the adoption of advanced technologies from Asia through Muslim mediation.{{sfn|Epstein|2009|pp=191–192}} Major technological advances included the first mechanical clocks and convex [[spectacles]], and the manufacture of [[distilled spirits]].{{sfn|Backman|2022|p=344}}{{sfn|Ilardi|2007|pp=4–5}} In Europe, horizontal [[treadle loom]]s were introduced in the {{nowrap|11th century}}, [[windmill]]s were first built after 1100, and [[spinning wheel]]s appeared around 1200.{{sfn|Backman|2022|p=344}}{{sfn|Epstein|2009|pp=193–194}} Large scale construction projects advanced building technology, and increased demand for raw materials like timber, stone, and bricks.{{sfn|Barber|2004|p=64}} Shipbuilding improved with the use of the [[Boat building|rib and plank]] method rather than the old Roman system of [[mortise and tenon]]. Other improvements to ships included the use of [[lateen]] sails and the [[rudder#Medieval Europe|stern-post rudder]], both of which increased the speed at which ships could be sailed.{{sfn|Barber|2004|pp=69–70}} The use of [[astrolabe]] and [[compass]] allowed navigation in large distance from the shores.{{sfn|Backman|2022|p=241}} The development of a three-field [[Crop rotation|rotation system]] for planting crops increased the usage of land by more than {{nowrap|30 per cent}}, with a consequent increase in production.{{sfn|Epstein|2009|p=45}} The development of the [[Plough|heavy plough]] allowed heavier soils to be farmed more efficiently. The spread of [[horse collar]] led to the use of [[Working animal|draught horses]] that required less pastures than oxen.{{sfn|Backman|2022|p=225}} Legumes—such as peas, beans, or lentils—were grown more widely, in addition to the cereal crops.{{sfn|Barber|2004|p=76}} In military affairs, the use of infantry with specialised roles increased. Along with the still-dominant heavy cavalry, armies often included mounted and infantry [[crossbowmen]], as well as [[sapper]]s and engineers.{{sfn|Nicolle|1996|p=125}} Crossbows increased in use partly because of the increase in [[siege]] warfare.{{refn|group=note|Crossbows are slow to reload, which limits their use on open battlefields. In sieges, the slowness is not as big a disadvantage, as the crossbowman can hide behind fortifications while reloading.{{sfn|Singman|1999|p=124}}}}{{sfn|Nicolle|1996|p=80}} This led to the use of closed-face [[Combat helmet|helmets]], heavy body armour, as well as [[Barding|horse armour]].{{sfn|Nicolle|1996|pp=134–138}} In contrast, the Mongols remained lightly armoured steppe horsemen even after they had adopted Chinese military devices.{{refn|group=note|The Mongols were reportedly the first to use [[gunpowder]] in Europe in the {{nowrap|mid-13th century}}.{{sfn|Nicolle|1996|pp=294–296}}}} The extensive use of spies for reconnoitering enemy lands was a prominent factor in their successful military campaigns.{{sfn|Sedlar|1994|pp=210–219}} Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. If you do not want your writing to be edited mercilessly, then do not submit it here. You are also promising us that you wrote this yourself, or copied it from a public domain or similar free resource (see Christianpedia:Copyrights for details). Do not submit copyrighted work without permission! Cancel Editing help (opens in new window) Discuss this page