Jesus

==Historical views==
{{Main|Historical Jesus|Quest for the historical Jesus|Scholarly interpretation of Gospel elements}}
{{See also|Biblical criticism}}
Prior to the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], the Gospels were usually regarded as accurate historical accounts, but since then scholars have emerged who question the reliability of the Gospels and draw a distinction between the Jesus described in the Gospels and the Jesus of history.{{sfn|Levine|2006|p=5}} Since the 18th century, three separate scholarly quests for the historical Jesus have taken place, each with distinct characteristics and based on different research criteria, which were often developed during the quest that applied them.{{sfn|Witherington|1997|p=113}}{{sfn|Powell|1998|pp=19–23}} While there is widespread scholarly agreement on the existence of Jesus,{{efn|name=exist}} and a basic consensus on the general outline of his life,{{efn|[[Amy-Jill Levine]] writes: "There is a consensus of sorts on a basic outline of Jesus' life. Most scholars agree that Jesus was baptized by John, debated with fellow Jews on how best to live according to God's will, engaged in healings and exorcisms, taught in parables, gathered male and female followers in Galilee, went to Jerusalem, and was crucified by Roman soldiers during the governorship of Pontius Pilate"<ref>[[Amy-Jill Levine]] in ''The Historical Jesus in Context'' edited by Amy-Jill Levine et al. Princeton University Press {{ISBN|978-0-691-00992-6}} p. 4</ref>}} the portraits of Jesus constructed by various scholars often differ from each other, and from the image portrayed in the gospel accounts.{{sfn|Theissen|Winter|2002|p=5}}<ref>James H. Charlesworth, Petr Pokomy (15 September 2009)''. Jesus Research: An International Perspective (Princeton-Prague Symposia Series on the Historical Jesus),'' {{ISBN|978-0-8028-6353-9}}, pp. 1–2.</ref>

Approaches to the historical reconstruction of the life of Jesus have varied from the "maximalist" approaches of the 19th century, in which the gospel accounts were accepted as reliable evidence wherever it is possible, to the "minimalist" approaches of the early 20th century, where hardly anything about Jesus was accepted as historical.{{sfn|Keener|2012|p=163}} In the 1950s, as the second quest for the historical Jesus gathered pace, the minimalist approaches faded away, and in the 21st century, minimalists such as [[Robert M. Price|Price]] are a small minority.{{sfn|Chilton|Evans|1998|p= 27}}{{sfn|Evans|2012a|pp=4–5}} Although a belief in the [[Biblical inerrancy|inerrancy]] of the Gospels cannot be supported historically, many scholars since the 1980s have held that, beyond the few facts considered to be historically certain, certain other elements of Jesus' life are "historically probable".{{sfn|Chilton|Evans|1998|p= 27}}<ref>{{cite book|title= Jesus in Contemporary Scholarship|first= Marcus J.|last= Borg|year= 1994|isbn= 978-1-56338-094-5|publisher= Continuum|pages= [https://archive.org/details/jesusincontempor00borg/page/4 4–6]|url=https://archive.org/details/jesusincontempor00borg/page/4}}</ref>{{sfn|Theissen|Winter|2002|pp=142–143}} Modern scholarly research on the historical Jesus thus focuses on identifying the most probable elements.<ref>{{cite book|title= John, Jesus, and History, Volume 1: Critical Appraisals of Critical Views|first1= Paul N.|last1= Anderson|first2= Felix|last2= Just|first3= Tom|last3= Thatcher|year= 2007|isbn= 978-1-58983-293-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ryybidJYMAQC|publisher= Society of Biblical Lit|page= 131|access-date= 14 August 2015|archive-date= 18 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170418011840/https://books.google.com/books?id=ryybidJYMAQC|url-status= live}}</ref>{{sfn|Meier|2006|p=124}}

===Judea and Galilee in the 1st century===
[[File:The Ministry of Jesus.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|[[Judea]], [[Galilee]] and neighbouring areas at the time of Jesus|alt=Topographical map of Palestine in the First Century highlighting places mentioned in the canonical gospels.]]
In AD 6, [[Judea]], [[Edom|Idumea]], and [[Samaria]] were transformed from a [[Herodian dynasty|Herodian]] client kingdom of the [[Roman Empire]] into an imperial province, also called [[Judea (Roman province)|Judea]]. A Roman [[prefect]], rather than a client king, ruled the land. The prefect ruled from [[Caesarea Maritima]], leaving [[Jerusalem]] to be run by the [[List of High Priests of Israel|High Priest of Israel]]. As an exception, the prefect came to Jerusalem during religious festivals, when religious and patriotic enthusiasm sometimes inspired unrest or uprisings. Gentile lands surrounded the Jewish territories of Judea and [[Galilee]], but Roman law and practice allowed Jews to remain separate legally and culturally. Galilee was evidently prosperous, and poverty was limited enough that it did not threaten the social order.<ref name="Britannica" /> <!-- Is Encyclopedia Brittanica really the best source to be using here? There are much more subject-focused encyclopaedias written by University Presses that we could use instead. -->

This was the era of [[Hellenistic Judaism]], which combined [[Judaism|Jewish religious tradition]] with elements of [[Hellenistic]] Greek culture. Until the [[fall of the Western Roman Empire]] and the [[Early Muslim conquests|Muslim conquests]] of the Eastern Mediterranean, the main centers of Hellenistic Judaism were [[Alexandria]] (Egypt) and [[Antioch]] (now Southern Turkey), the two main [[Greek colonies|Greek urban settlements]] of the [[MENA|Middle East and North Africa]] area, both founded at the end of the 4th century BC in the wake of the conquests of [[Alexander the Great]]. Hellenistic Judaism also existed in [[Jerusalem during the Second Temple Period]], where there was conflict between [[Hellenizers]] and traditionalists (sometimes called [[Judaizers]]). The [[Hebrew Bible]] was translated from [[Biblical Hebrew]] and [[Biblical Aramaic]] into [[Jewish Koine Greek]]; the [[Targum]] translations into Aramaic were also generated during this era, both due to the decline of knowledge of Hebrew.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Barr |first1=James |title=The Cambridge history of Judaism. Volume 2: The Hellenistic Age |date=1989 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-05512-3 |editor1-last=Davies |editor1-first=W. D. |edition=1. publ. |location=Cambridge |pages=79–114 |language=en |chapter=Chapter 3 – Hebrew, Aramaic and Greek in the Hellenistic age |editor2-last=Finkelstein |editor2-first=Louis}}</ref>

Jews based their faith and religious practice on the [[Torah]], five books said to have been given by God to [[Moses]]. The three prominent religious parties were the [[Pharisees]], the [[Essenes]], and the [[Sadducees]]. Together these parties represented only a small fraction of the population. Most Jews looked forward to a time that God would deliver them from their pagan rulers, possibly through war against the Romans.<ref name="Britannica" />

===Sources===
{{Main|Sources for the historicity of Jesus}}
{{See also|Josephus on Jesus|Tacitus on Christ}}
[[File:WorksJosephus1640TP.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|A 1640 edition of the works of Josephus, a 1st-century [[Roman Jews|Roman-Jewish]] historian who referred to Jesus{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=431–36}}]]

New Testament scholars face a formidable challenge when they analyse the canonical Gospels.{{sfn|Harris|1985|p=263}} The Gospels are not biographies in the modern sense, and the authors explain Jesus' theological significance and recount his public ministry while omitting many details of his life.{{sfn|Harris|1985|p=263}}

The reports of supernatural events associated with Jesus' death and resurrection make the challenge even more difficult.{{sfn|Harris|1985|p=263}}
Scholars regard the Gospels as compromised sources of information because the writers were trying to glorify Jesus.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=3}}
Even so, the sources for Jesus' life are better than sources scholars have for the life of [[Alexander the Great]].{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=3}}

Scholars use a number of criteria, such as the [[criterion of multiple attestation|criterion of independent attestation]], the [[Biblical criticism#Coherence|criterion of coherence]], and the [[criterion of discontinuity]] to judge the historicity of events.{{sfn|Rausch|2003|pp=36–37}} The historicity of an event also depends on the reliability of the source; indeed, the Gospels are not independent nor consistent records of Jesus' life. Mark, which is most likely the earliest written gospel, has been considered for many decades the most historically accurate.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Anderson |first1=Paul N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ryybidJYMAQC&pg=PA291 |title=John, Jesus, and History |last2=Just |first2=Felix |last3=Thatcher |first3=Tom |publisher=Society of Biblical Literature |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-58983-293-0 |volume=2 |page=291 |language=en |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910170334/https://books.google.com/books?id=ryybidJYMAQC&pg=PA291 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> John, the latest written gospel, differs considerably from the Synoptic Gospels, and thus is generally considered less reliable, although more and more scholars now also recognize that it may contain a core of older material as historically valuable as the Synoptic tradition or even more so.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Anderson |first1=Paul N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ryybidJYMAQC&pg=PA291 |title=John, Jesus, and History |last2=Just |first2=Felix |last3=Thatcher |first3=Tom |publisher=Society of Biblical Literature |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-58983-293-0 |volume=2 |page=292 |language=en |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910170334/https://books.google.com/books?id=ryybidJYMAQC&pg=PA291 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Some scholars (most notably the [[Jesus Seminar]]) believe that the non-canonical [[Gospel of Thomas]] might be an independent witness to many of Jesus' parables and aphorisms. For example, Thomas confirms that Jesus blessed the poor and that this saying circulated independently before being combined with similar sayings in the [[Q source]].{{sfn|Funk|Hoover|The Jesus Seminar|1993|pp=471–532}} However, the majority of scholars are sceptical about this text and believe it should be dated to the 2nd century AD.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Casey|first=Maurice|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lXK0auknD0YC|title=Jesus of Nazareth: An Independent Historian's Account of His Life and Teaching|date=30 December 2010|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-0-567-64517-3|language=en|access-date=18 May 2021|archive-date=9 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240309232056/https://books.google.com/books?id=lXK0auknD0YC|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Ehrman|first=Bart D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xpoNAQAAMAAJ|title=The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings|date=1997|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-508481-8|language=en|access-date=1 May 2018|archive-date=9 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240309231638/https://books.google.com/books?id=xpoNAQAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref>

Other select non-canonical Christian texts may also have value for historical Jesus research.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|pp=17–62}}

Early non-Christian sources that attest to the historical existence of Jesus include the works of the historians [[Josephus]] and [[Tacitus]].{{efn|Tuckett writes: "All this does at least render highly implausible any far-fetched theories that even Jesus' very existence was a Christian invention. The fact that Jesus existed, that he was crucified under Pontius Pilate (for whatever reason) and that he had a band of followers who continued to support his cause, seems to be part of the bedrock of historical tradition. If nothing else, the non-Christian evidence can provide us with certainty on that score."<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|editor-last=Bockmuehl |editor-first= Markus N.A. |title=Sources and methods |first=Christopher |last=Tuckett |year=2001|encyclopedia= Cambridge Companion to Jesus|publisher= Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-79678-1|pages=123–24}}</ref>}}{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=431–36}}{{sfn|Van Voorst|2000|pp=39–53}} Josephus scholar [[Louis Feldman]] has stated that "few have doubted the genuineness" of Josephus's reference to Jesus in [[s:The Antiquities of the Jews/Book XX#Chapter 9|book 20]] of the ''[[Antiquities of the Jews]]'', and it is disputed only by a small number of scholars.{{sfn|Van Voorst|2000| p= 83}}<ref>{{cite book|last= Maier|first= Paul L.|year= 1995|title= Josephus, the essential works: a condensation of Jewish antiquities and The Jewish war|isbn= 978-0-8254-3260-6|page= 285|publisher= Kregel Academic|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c2Tu1Yp3n0EC&pg=PA285|access-date= 14 August 2015|archive-date= 7 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907111405/https://books.google.com/books?id=c2Tu1Yp3n0EC&pg=PA285|url-status= live}}</ref> Tacitus referred to Christ and his execution by Pilate in [[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#44|book 15]] of his work ''[[Annals (Tacitus)|Annals]]''. Scholars generally consider Tacitus's reference to the execution of Jesus to be both authentic and of historical value as an independent Roman source.<ref>{{cite book|title=Jesus and His Contemporaries: Comparative Studies|first=Craig A.|last=Evans|year=2001|isbn=978-0-391-04118-9|page=42|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DRcQ2bkLxc8C&pg=PA42|publisher=Brill|access-date=14 August 2015|archive-date=10 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910175221/https://books.google.com/books?id=DRcQ2bkLxc8C&pg=PA42|url-status=live}}</ref>

Non-Christian sources are valuable in two ways. First, they show that even neutral or hostile parties never show any doubt that Jesus actually existed. Second, they present a rough picture of Jesus that is compatible with that found in the Christian sources: that Jesus was a teacher, had a reputation as a miracle worker, had a brother James, and died a violent death.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998}}

Archaeology helps scholars better understand Jesus' social world.{{sfn|Reed|2002|p=18}} Recent archaeological work, for example, indicates that [[Capernaum]], a city important in Jesus' ministry, was poor and small, without even a [[Forum (Roman)|forum]] or an [[agora]].<ref name="Gowler">{{cite book |title=What are they saying about the historical Jesus?|first=David B. |last=Gowler |year=2007| isbn= 978-0-8091-4445-7|publisher=Paulist Press| page= 102}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Jesus and archaeology |editor-first=James H. |editor-last=Charlesworth |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8028-4880-2 |page=127 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QoIS7VApH6cC&pg=PA127 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |title=Archived copy |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907182047/https://books.google.com/books?id=QoIS7VApH6cC&pg=PA127 |url-status=live }}</ref> This archaeological discovery resonates well with the scholarly view that Jesus advocated reciprocal sharing among the destitute in that area of Galilee.<ref name="Gowler" />

===Chronology===
{{Main|Chronology of Jesus}}
{{See also|Anno Domini{{!}}''Anno Domini''|Saturnalia#Influence}}
{{Jewish Christianity}}
Jesus was a Galilean Jew,{{sfn|Vermes|1981|pp=20, 26, 27, 29}} born around the beginning of the 1st century, who died in 30 or 33 AD in [[Judea (Roman province)|Judea]].{{sfn|Humphreys|Waddington|1992|p=340}} The general scholarly consensus is that Jesus was a contemporary of [[John the Baptist]] and was crucified as ordered by the Roman governor [[Pontius Pilate]],{{sfn|Levine|2006|p=4}} who held office from 26 to 36 AD.{{sfn|Levine|2006|p=4}}

The Gospels offer several indications concerning the year of Jesus' birth. Matthew 2:1 associates the birth of Jesus with the reign of [[Herod the Great]], who died around 4 BC, and Luke 1:5 mentions that Herod was on the throne shortly before the birth of Jesus,{{sfn|Maier|1989|pp=115–18}}{{sfn|Niswonger|1992|pp=121–22}} although this gospel also associates the birth with the [[Census of Quirinius]] which took place ten years later.{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles|2009|pp=137–38}}{{sfn|Niswonger|1992|pp=122–24}} Luke 3:23 states that Jesus was "about thirty years old" at the start of his [[ministry of Jesus|ministry]], which according to Acts 10:37–38 was preceded by John the Baptist's ministry, which was recorded in Luke 3:1–2 to have begun in the 15th year of [[Tiberius]]'s reign (28 or 29 AD).{{sfn|Niswonger|1992|pp=121–22}}<ref name="Vermes2006">{{cite book | first = Géza | last = Vermes | title = The Nativity: History and Legend | publisher = Random House Digital | year = 2010 | pages = 81–82 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a9EiEU_Yz_kC&pg=PA81 | isbn = 978-0-307-49918-9 | access-date = 25 January 2016 | archive-date = 3 May 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160503100006/https://books.google.com/books?id=a9EiEU_Yz_kC&pg=PA81 | url-status = live }}</ref> By collating the gospel accounts with historical data and using various other methods, most scholars arrive at a date of birth for Jesus between 6 and 4 BC,<ref name="Vermes2006" />{{sfn|Dunn|2003|p=324}} but some propose estimates that include a wider range.{{efn|For example, John P. Meier states that Jesus' birth year is ''c.'' 7/6 BC,{{sfn|Meier|1991|p=407}} while Finegan favours ''c.'' 3/2 BC.<ref name=Finegan>{{harvnb|Finegan|1998|page=[https://archive.org/details/handbookbiblical00fine/page/n350 319]}}</ref>}}

The date range for Jesus' ministry has been estimated using several different approaches.{{sfn|Köstenberger |Kellum|Quarles|2009|p=140}}{{sfn|Freedman|2000|p=249}} One of these applies the reference in Luke 3:1–2, Acts 10:37–38, and the dates of Tiberius's reign, which are well known, to give a date of around 28–29 AD for the start of Jesus' ministry.{{sfn|Maier|1989|pp=120–21}} Another approach estimates a date around 27–29 AD by using the statement about the temple in John 2:13–20, which asserts that the [[Second Temple|temple in Jerusalem]] was in its 46th year of construction at the start of Jesus' ministry, together with Josephus's statement<ref>{{Citation |last=Josephus |title=Book XV |url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Antiquities_of_the_Jews/Book_XV |work=The Antiquities of the Jews |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=24 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230724214731/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Antiquities_of_the_Jews/Book_XV |url-status=live }}.</ref> that the temple's reconstruction was started by Herod the Great in the 18th year of his reign.{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles|2009|p=140}}{{sfn|Maier|1989|p=123}} A further method uses the date of the [[Beheading of St. John the Baptist|death of John the Baptist]] and the marriage of [[Herod Antipas]] to [[Herodias]], based on the writings of Josephus, and correlates it with Matthew 14:4 and Mark 6:18.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year=2006 |title=Josephus on John the Baptist |encyclopedia=The Historical Jesus in Context |publisher=Princeton University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wMbEyeDSQQgC&pg=PA55 |access-date=25 January 2016 |last=Evans |first=Craig |editor-last1=Levine |editor-first=Amy-Jill |publication-place=Princeton, New Jersey, USA |pages=55–58 |isbn=978-0-691-00992-6 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160503120729/https://books.google.com/books?id=wMbEyeDSQQgC&pg=PA55 |archive-date=3 May 2016 |editor-last2=Allison |editor-first3=John D. |editor-last3=Crossan |editor2-first=Dale C. |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Herodias: at home in that fox's den|first= Florence M.|last= Gillman |year=2003| isbn= 978-0-8146-5108-7| pages=25–30 |publisher= Liturgical Press}}</ref> Given that most scholars date the marriage of Herod and Herodias as AD 28–35, this yields a date about 28–29 AD.{{sfn|Freedman|2000|p=249}}

A number of approaches have been used to estimate the year of the crucifixion of Jesus. Most scholars agree that he died in 30 or 33 AD.{{sfn|Humphreys|Waddington |1992|p=340}}{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles |2009|p=398}} The Gospels state that the event occurred during the prefecture of Pilate, the Roman governor of Judea from 26 to 36 AD.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|pp=81–83}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Green |first=Joel B. |title=The gospel of Luke: New International Commentary on the New Testament Series |year=1997 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |isbn=978-0-8028-2315-1 |page=168 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wzRVN2S8cVgC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=25 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200425204312/https://books.google.com/books?id=wzRVN2S8cVgC |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|Carter|2003|pp=44–45}} The date for the [[conversion of Paul]] (estimated to be 33–36 AD) acts as an upper bound for the date of Crucifixion. The dates for Paul's conversion and ministry can be determined by analysing the [[Pauline epistles]] and the [[Acts of the Apostles]].{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum |Quarles |2009|pp=398–400}}<ref>{{cite book|first=Paul|last=Barnett|title=Jesus & the Rise of Early Christianity: A History of New Testament Times|year=2002|isbn=978-0-8308-2699-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NlFYY_iVt9cC&pg=PA21|publisher=InterVarsity Press|page=21|access-date=25 January 2016|archive-date=3 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160503144441/https://books.google.com/books?id=NlFYY_iVt9cC&pg=PA21|url-status=live}}</ref> Astronomers have tried to estimate the precise date of the Crucifixion by analysing lunar motion and calculating historic dates of [[Passover]], a festival based on the lunisolar [[Hebrew calendar]]. The most widely accepted dates derived from this method are 7 April 30 AD, and 3 April 33 AD (both [[Julian calendar|Julian]]).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Pratt |first=J. P. |year=1991 |title=Newton's Date for the Crucifixion |url=http://www.johnpratt.com/items/docs/newton.html |url-status=live |journal=Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society |volume=32 |pages=301–304 |bibcode=1991QJRAS..32..301P |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100116085454/http://johnpratt.com/items/docs/newton.html |archive-date=16 January 2010 |access-date=17 May 2013}}</ref>

===Historicity of events===
{{Main|Historicity of Jesus}}
{{See also|Cultural and historical background of Jesus|History of the Jews in the Roman Empire|Historical criticism|Textual criticism|Historical reliability of the Gospels}}
{{multiple image
 | footer = Roman senator and historian [[Tacitus]] (pictured left) mentioned the execution of "Christus" (Jesus) by Pilate in a passage describing the [[Great Fire of Rome]] and [[Nero]]'s persecution of Christians in the ''[[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#44|Annals]]'', a history of the Roman Empire during the 1st&nbsp;century.
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Nearly all historians (both modern and historical) agree that Jesus was a real person who historically existed.{{efn|name=exist}} Scholars have reached a limited consensus on the basics of Jesus' life.<ref name="White">{{cite book |title=Scripting Jesus: The Gospels in Rewrite |first=L. Michael |last=White |year=2010 |publisher=HarperOne}}</ref>

====Family====
{{See also|Brothers of Jesus}}
Many scholars agree that Joseph, Jesus' father, died before Jesus began his ministry. Joseph is not mentioned in the Gospels during Jesus' ministry. Joseph's death would explain why in Mark 6:3, Jesus' neighbours refer to Jesus as the "son of Mary" (sons were usually identified by their fathers).{{sfn|Brown|1978|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ML1mnUBwmhcC&pg=PA64 64]}}

According to Theissen and Merz, it is common for extraordinary [[Charismatic authority|charismatic leaders]], such as Jesus, to come into conflict with their ordinary families.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|p=194}} In Mark, Jesus' family comes to get him, fearing that he is mad (Mark 3:20–34), and this account is thought to be historical because early Christians would likely not have invented it.<ref>{{cite book |author-link=Robert W. Funk |last=Funk |first=Robert W. |author2-link=Jesus Seminar |author2=The Jesus Seminar |title=The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus |publisher=HarperSanFrancisco |year=1998 |chapter=Mark |pages=51–161}}</ref> After Jesus' death, many members of his family joined the Christian movement.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|p=194}} Jesus' brother [[James, brother of Jesus|James]] became a leader of the Jerusalem Church.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=James, St.}}

[[Géza Vermes]] says that the doctrine of the [[virgin birth of Jesus]] arose from theological development rather than from historical events.{{sfn|Vermes|1981|p=283}}
Despite the widely held view that the authors of the Synoptic Gospels drew upon each other (the so-called [[synoptic problem]]), other scholars take it as significant that the virgin birth is [[criterion of multiple attestation|attested]] by two separate gospels, Matthew and Luke.<ref>Bromiley, Geoffrey (1995) ''International Standard Bible Encyclopedia'', Eerdmans Publishing, {{ISBN|978-0-8028-3784-4}}, p. 991.</ref>{{sfn|Keener|2009b|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8C2Y_HaL5W0C&pg=PA83 83]}}<ref>Donald A. Hagner, ''Matthew 1–13'' (Paternoster Press 1993 {{ISBN|978-0-8499-0232-1}}), pp. 14–15, cited in the preceding.</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0PbBz6-XcssC&pg=PA761 |page=761 |title=Christian Theology |isbn=978-1-4412-0010-5 |last1=Erickson |first1=Millard J. |date=August 1998 |publisher=Baker Publishing |access-date=4 July 2016 |archive-date=13 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913031951/https://books.google.com/books?id=0PbBz6-XcssC&pg=PA761 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Christmas – Philosophy for Everyone: Better Than a Lump of Coal |first=Scott C. |last=Lowe |publisher=Wiley |date=20 September 2010 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2hYEngEACAAJ |page=28 |isbn=978-1-4443-3090-8 |access-date=4 July 2016 |archive-date=13 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913014940/https://books.google.com/books?id=2hYEngEACAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Bruner |first=Frederick Dale |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5jZlfg1yxIEC&pg=PA41 |title=Matthew a Commentary: The Christbook, Matthew 1–12, Volume 1 |date=30 April 2004 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |isbn=978-0-8028-1118-9 |page=41 |language=en |author-link=F. Dale Bruner |access-date=4 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913024157/https://books.google.com/books?id=5jZlfg1yxIEC&pg=PA41 |archive-date=13 September 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>

According to [[E. P. Sanders]], the [[Nativity of Jesus|birth narratives]] in the [[Gospel of Matthew]] and the [[Gospel of Luke]] are the clearest case of invention in the Gospel narratives of Jesus' life. Both accounts have Jesus born in [[Bethlehem]], in accordance with Jewish salvation history, and both have him growing up in Nazareth. But Sanders points out that the two Gospels report completely different and irreconcilable explanations for how that happened. Luke's account of a census in which everyone returned to their ancestral cities is not plausible. Matthew's account is more plausible, but the story reads as though it was invented to identify Jesus as like a new [[Moses]], and the historian [[Josephus]] reports Herod the Great's brutality without ever mentioning that [[Massacre of the Innocents|he massacred little boys]].{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=85–88}} The contradictions between the two Gospels were probably apparent to the early Christians already, since attempts to harmonize the two narratives are already present in the earlier apocryphal [[infancy gospels]] (the [[Infancy Gospel of Thomas]] and the [[Gospel of James]]), which are dated to the 2nd century AD.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Cousland|first=J. R. C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rMw6DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA3|title=Holy Terror: Jesus in the Infancy Gospel of Thomas|date=16 November 2017|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|isbn=978-0-567-66817-2|language=en|access-date=17 May 2021|archive-date=9 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240309232719/https://books.google.com/books?id=rMw6DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA3#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Gambero|first=Luigi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dsZzsAtggnUC&q=L.+Gambero,+Mary+and+the+Fathers+of+the+Church|title=Mary and the Fathers of the Church: The Blessed Virgin Mary in Patristic Thought|date=1999|publisher=Ignatius Press|isbn=978-0-89870-686-4|language=en|access-date=17 May 2021|archive-date=9 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240309232541/https://books.google.com/books?id=dsZzsAtggnUC&q=L.+Gambero,+Mary+and+the+Fathers+of+the+Church#v=snippet&q=L.%20Gambero%2C%20Mary%20and%20the%20Fathers%20of%20the%20Church&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>

Sanders says that the genealogies of Jesus are based not on historical information but on the authors' desire to show that Jesus was the universal Jewish saviour.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=80–91}} In any event, once the doctrine of the virgin birth of Jesus became established, that tradition superseded the earlier tradition that he was descended from [[David]] through Joseph.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|p=196}} The [[Gospel of Luke]] reports that Jesus was a [[Consanguinity|blood relative]] of [[John the Baptist]], but scholars generally consider this connection to be invented.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=80–91}}<ref>{{cite book |author-link=Robert W. Funk |last=Funk |first=Robert W. |author2-link=Jesus Seminar |author2=The Jesus Seminar |title=The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus |publisher=HarperSanFrancisco |year=1998 |chapter=Birth & Infancy Stories |pages=497–526}}</ref>

====Baptism====
[[File:ဗတ္တိဇံ.jpg|thumb|Baptism in the [[Jordan River]], the river where Jesus was baptized]]
Most modern scholars consider Jesus' baptism to be a definite historical fact, along with his crucifixion.{{sfn|Dunn|2003|p=339}} Theologian [[James Dunn (theologian)|James D. G. Dunn]] states that they "command almost universal assent" and "rank so high on the 'almost impossible to doubt or deny' scale of historical facts" that they are often the starting points for the study of the historical Jesus.{{sfn|Dunn|2003|p=339}} Scholars adduce the [[criterion of embarrassment]], saying that early Christians would not have invented a baptism that might imply that Jesus committed [[sin]]s and wanted to [[Repentance|repent]].{{sfn|Powell|1998|p=47}}<ref>{{cite book|last=Murphy|first=Catherine|title=John the Baptist: Prophet of Purity for a New Age|year=2003|publisher=Liturgical Press|isbn=978-0-8146-5933-5|pages=29–30|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=so_G78SBXAoC&pg=PA29|access-date=14 August 2015|archive-date=7 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907065554/https://books.google.com/books?id=so_G78SBXAoC&pg=PA29|url-status=live}}</ref> According to Theissen and Merz, Jesus was inspired by [[John the Baptist]] and took over from him many elements of his teaching.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|p=235}}

====Ministry in Galilee====
Most scholars hold that Jesus lived in [[Galilee]] and [[Judea]] and did not preach or study elsewhere.<ref name="Dunn303">{{cite encyclopedia |year=2006 |title=The Spirit-Filled Experience of Jesus |encyclopedia=The Historical Jesus in Recent Research |publisher=Eisenbrauns |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=37uJRUF6btAC&pg=PA303 |access-date=14 August 2015 |last=Borg |first=Marcus J. |editor-last1=Dunn |editor-first=James D. G. |page=303 |isbn=978-1-57506-100-9 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910073549/https://books.google.com/books?id=37uJRUF6btAC&pg=PA303 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |editor2-last=McKnight |editor2-first=Scot |url-status=live}}</ref> They agree that Jesus debated with Jewish authorities on the subject of God, performed some healings, taught in [[parable]]s and gathered followers.{{sfn|Levine|2006|p=4}} Jesus' Jewish critics considered his ministry to be scandalous because he feasted with sinners, fraternized with women, and allowed his followers to pluck grain on the Sabbath.{{sfn|Funk|Hoover|The Jesus Seminar|1993|p=3}} According to Sanders, it is not plausible that disagreements over how to interpret the Law of Moses and the Sabbath would have led Jewish authorities to want Jesus killed.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=205–23}}

According to Ehrman, Jesus taught that a coming kingdom was everyone's proper focus, not anything in this life.{{sfn|Ehrman|1999|pp=167–70}} He taught about the Jewish Law, seeking its true meaning, sometimes in opposition to traditions.{{sfn|Ehrman|1999|pp=164–67}} Jesus put love at the center of the Law, and following that Law was an apocalyptic necessity.{{sfn|Ehrman|1999|pp=164–67}} His ethical teachings called for forgiveness, not judging others, loving enemies, and caring for the poor.{{sfn|Ehrman|1999|pp=171–76}} Funk and Hoover note that typical of Jesus were [[paradox]]ical or surprising turns of phrase, such as advising one, when struck on the cheek, [[Turning the other cheek|to offer the other cheek]] to be struck as well.<ref>Luke 6:29.</ref>{{sfn|Funk|Hoover|The Jesus Seminar|1993|p=294}}

The Gospels portray Jesus teaching in well-defined sessions, such as the [[Sermon on the Mount]] in the Gospel of Matthew or the parallel [[Sermon on the Plain]] in Luke. According to Gerd Theissen and Annette Merz, these teaching sessions include authentic teachings of Jesus, but the scenes were invented by the respective evangelists to frame these teachings, which had originally been recorded without context.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|pp=17–62}} While Jesus' [[miracle]]s fit within the social context of [[Ancient history|antiquity]], he defined them differently. First, he attributed them to the faith of those healed. Second, he connected them to [[Eschatology|end times]] prophecy.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|p=310}}

Jesus chose [[Apostles in the New Testament|twelve disciples]] (the "Twelve"),{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=10}} evidently as an [[Apocalypticism|apocalyptic]] message.{{sfn|Ehrman|1999|pp=186–87}} All three Synoptics mention the Twelve, although the names on Luke's list vary from those in Mark and Matthew, suggesting that Christians were not certain who all the disciples were.{{sfn|Ehrman|1999|pp=186–87}} The twelve disciples might have represented the twelve original [[Twelve Tribes of Israel|tribes of Israel]], which would be restored once God's rule was instituted.{{sfn|Ehrman|1999|pp=186–87}} The disciples were reportedly meant to be the rulers of the tribes in the coming Kingdom.<ref>Matthew 19:28, Luke 22:30.</ref>{{sfn|Ehrman|1999|pp=186–87}} According to Bart Ehrman, Jesus' promise that the Twelve would rule is historical, because the Twelve included [[Judas Iscariot]]. In Ehrman's view, no Christians would have invented a line from Jesus, promising rulership to the disciple who betrayed him.{{sfn|Ehrman|1999|pp=186–87}}

In Mark, the disciples play hardly any role other than a negative one. While others sometimes respond to Jesus with complete faith, his disciples are puzzled and doubtful.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=123–24}} They serve as a [[Foil (literature)|foil]] to Jesus and to other characters.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=123–24}} The failings of the disciples are probably exaggerated in Mark, and the disciples make a better showing in Matthew and Luke.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=123–24}}

Sanders says that Jesus' mission was not about [[repentance]], although he acknowledges that this opinion is unpopular. He argues that repentance appears as a strong theme only in Luke, that repentance was [[John the Baptist]]'s message, and that Jesus' ministry would not have been scandalous if the sinners he ate with had been repentant.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=230–36}} According to Theissen and Merz, Jesus taught that God was generously giving people an opportunity to repent.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|p=336}}

====Role====
Jesus taught that an apocalyptic figure, the "[[Son of man (Christianity)|Son of Man]]", would soon come on clouds of glory to gather the elect, or chosen ones.<ref>Mark 13:24–27, Matthew 24:29–31, and Luke 21:25–28.</ref> He referred to himself as a "[[son of man]]" in the colloquial sense of "a person", but scholars do not know whether he also meant himself when he referred to the heavenly "Son of Man". [[Paul the Apostle]] and other early Christians interpreted the "Son of Man" as the risen Jesus.<ref name="Britannica" />

The Gospels refer to Jesus not only as a messiah but in the absolute form as "the Messiah" or, equivalently, "the Christ". In early Judaism, this absolute form of the title is not found, but only phrases such as "his messiah". The tradition is ambiguous enough to leave room for debate as to whether Jesus defined his [[Eschatology|eschatological]] role as that of the messiah.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=Messiah}} The Jewish messianic tradition included many different forms, some of them focused on a messiah figure and others not.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|pp=533–40}} Based on the Christian tradition, [[Gerd Theissen]] advances the hypothesis that Jesus saw himself in messianic terms but did not claim the title "Messiah".{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|pp=533–40}} Bart Ehrman argues that Jesus did consider himself to be the messiah, albeit in the sense that he would be the king of the new political order that God would usher in,<ref>{{cite web|last=Ehrman|first=Bart|url=http://ehrmanblog.org/judas-and-the-messianic-secret/|title=Judas and the Messianic Secret|website=The Bart Ehrman Blog|date=1 December 2015|access-date=15 February 2016|archive-date=23 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160223091403/http://ehrmanblog.org/judas-and-the-messianic-secret/|url-status=live}}</ref> not in the sense that most people today think of the term.<ref>{{cite web|last=Ehrman|first=Bart|url=http://ehrmanblog.org/jesus-claim-to-be-the-messiah/|title=Jesus' Claim to be the Messiah|website=The Bart Ehrman Blog|date=1 December 2015|access-date=15 February 2016|archive-date=23 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160223082758/http://ehrmanblog.org/jesus-claim-to-be-the-messiah/|url-status=live}}</ref>

====Passover and crucifixion in Jerusalem====
Around AD 30, Jesus and his followers travelled from [[Galilee]] to [[Jerusalem]] to observe [[Passover]].{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=10}} Jesus caused a disturbance in the [[Second Temple]],{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=11}} which was the center of Jewish religious and civil authority. Sanders associates it with Jesus' prophecy that the Temple would be totally demolished.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=254–62}} Jesus held a last meal with his disciples, which is the origin of the [[Eucharist|Sacrament of the Holy Eucharist]]. His words as recorded in the Synoptic gospels and Paul's [[First Epistle to the Corinthians|First Letter to the Corinthians]] do not entirely agree, but this meal appears to have pointed to Jesus' place in the coming Kingdom of God when very probably Jesus knew he was about to be killed, although he may have still hoped that God might yet intervene.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=263–64}}

The Gospels say that Jesus was betrayed to the authorities by a disciple, and many scholars consider this report to be highly reliable.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=Jesus Christ}} He was executed on the orders of [[Pontius Pilate]], the Roman [[prefect]] of [[Judea (Roman province)|Judaea]].{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=11}} Pilate most likely saw Jesus' reference to the Kingdom of God as a threat to Roman authority and worked with the Temple elites to have Jesus executed.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|pp=465–66}} The Sadducean high-priestly leaders of the Temple more plausibly had Jesus executed for political reasons than for his teaching.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=Jesus Christ}} They may have regarded him as a threat to stability, especially after he caused a disturbance at the Second Temple.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=Jesus Christ}}<ref name="JE1906">{{cite web |last1=Jacobs |first1=Joseph |last2=Kohler |first2=Kaufmann |last3=Gottheil |first3=Richard |last4=Krauss |first4=Samuel |title=Jesus of Nazareth |url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/8616-jesus-of-nazareth |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160226102548/http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/8616-jesus-of-nazareth |archive-date=26 February 2016 |website=Jewish Encyclopedia}} See ''Avodah Zarah 17a:1'', ''Sanhedrin 43a:20'', ''Gittin 57a:3–4'', and ''Sotah 47a:6''.</ref> Other factors, such as Jesus' triumphal entry into Jerusalem, may have contributed to this decision.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=269–73}} Most scholars consider Jesus' crucifixion to be factual, because early Christians would not have invented the painful death of their leader.{{sfn|Dunn|2003|p=339}}{{sfn|Meier|2006|pp=126–28}}

====After crucifixion====
[[File:The Resurrection Beaufort arms in border (f. 131) Cropped.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|The Resurrection of Christ from a 16th-century manuscript of ''La Passion de Nostre Seigneur'']]
After Jesus' death, his followers said he was restored to life, although exact details of their experiences are unclear. The gospel reports contradict each other, possibly suggesting competition among those claiming to have seen him first rather than deliberate fraud.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=276–81}} On the other hand, [[L. Michael White]] suggests that inconsistencies in the Gospels reflect differences in the agendas of their unknown authors.<ref name="White" /> The followers of Jesus formed a community to wait for his return and the founding of his kingdom.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=11}}

===Portraits of Jesus===
{{Main|Historical Jesus|Quest for the historical Jesus}}

Modern research on the historical Jesus has not led to a unified picture of the historical figure, partly because of the variety of academic traditions represented by the scholars.{{sfn|Theissen|Winter|2002|pp=4–5}} Given the scarcity of historical sources, it is generally difficult for any scholar to construct a portrait of Jesus that can be considered historically valid beyond the basic elements of his life.{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles|2009|pp=117–25}}{{sfn|Ehrman|1999|pp=22–23}} The portraits of Jesus constructed in these quests often differ from each other, and from the image portrayed in the Gospels.{{sfn|Theissen|Winter|2002|p=5}}{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=Historical Jesus, Quest of the}}

Jesus is seen as the founder of, in the words of Sanders, a "renewal movement within Judaism". One of the criteria used to discern historical details in the "third quest" is the criterion of plausibility, relative to Jesus' Jewish context and to his influence on Christianity. A disagreement in contemporary research is whether Jesus was [[Apocalypticism|apocalyptic]]. Most scholars conclude that he was an apocalyptic preacher, like [[John the Baptist]] and [[Paul the Apostle]]. In contrast, certain prominent North American scholars, such as [[Burton Mack]] and John Dominic Crossan, advocate for a non-[[Eschatology|eschatological]] Jesus, one who is more of a Cynic [[Sage (philosophy)|sage]] than an apocalyptic preacher.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|pp=1–15}} In addition to portraying Jesus as an apocalyptic prophet, a charismatic healer or a [[Cynicism (philosophy)|cynic philosopher]], some scholars portray him as the true messiah or an [[Egalitarianism|egalitarian]] prophet of [[social change]].<ref name="CambHist23">{{cite book|title=The Cambridge History of Christianity|volume=1|first1=Margaret M.|last1=Mitchell|first2=Frances M.|last2=Young|year=2006|isbn=978-0-521-81239-9|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=23|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6UTfmw_zStsC&pg=PA23|access-date=14 August 2015|archive-date=7 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907180601/https://books.google.com/books?id=6UTfmw_zStsC&pg=PA23|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles|2009|pp=124–25}} However, the attributes described in the portraits sometimes overlap, and scholars who differ on some attributes sometimes agree on others.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title=Why Study the Historical Jesus? | encyclopedia=Handbook for the Study of the Historical Jesus | publisher=Brill | year=2011 | first=Colin | last=Brown | page=1416 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LuKMmVu0tpMC&pg=PA1416 | isbn=978-90-04-16372-0 | editor1-first=Tom | editor1-last=Holmen | editor2-first=Stanley E. | editor2-last=Porter | access-date=14 August 2015 | archive-date=10 September 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910170524/https://books.google.com/books?id=LuKMmVu0tpMC&pg=PA1416 | url-status=live }}</ref>

Since the 18th century, scholars have occasionally put forth that Jesus was a political national messiah, but the evidence for this portrait is negligible. Likewise, the proposal that Jesus was a [[Zealots (Judea)|Zealot]] does not fit with the earliest strata of the Synoptic tradition.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=Jesus Christ}}

===Language, ethnicity, and appearance===
{{further|Language of Jesus|Race and appearance of Jesus}}
[[File:CompositeJesus.JPG|thumb|The ethnicity of Jesus in art has been influenced by cultural settings.{{sfn|Houlden|2006|pp=63–99}}<ref name="Erricker44" />|alt=Twelve depictions of Jesus from around the world]]
Jesus grew up in Galilee and much of his ministry took place there.{{sfn|Green|McKnight|Marshall|1992|p=442}} The languages spoken in Galilee and Judea during the 1st century AD include [[Jewish Palestinian Aramaic]], [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], and [[Koine Greek|Greek]], with Aramaic being predominant.<ref name="BarrLang">{{cite journal|first=James|last=Barr|title=Which language did Jesus speak|journal=Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester|year=1970|volume=53|issue=1|pages=9–29|url=https://www.escholar.manchester.ac.uk/uk-ac-man-scw:1m2973|doi=10.7227/BJRL.53.1.2|access-date=27 July 2011|archive-date=3 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181203184449/https://www.escholar.manchester.ac.uk/uk-ac-man-scw:1m2973|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Porter110">{{cite book |last=Porter |first=Stanley E. |url=https://archive.org/details/handbooktoexeges00port |title=Handbook to exegesis of the New Testament |publisher=Brill |year=1997 |isbn=978-90-04-09921-0 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/handbooktoexeges00port/page/n124 110]–112 |language=en |url-access=limited}}</ref> There is substantial consensus that Jesus gave most of his teachings in Aramaic{{sfn|Dunn|2003|pp=313–15}} in the [[Galilean dialect]].<ref name="Allen C. Myers">{{cite encyclopedia |year=1987 |title=Aramaic |encyclopedia=The Eerdmans Bible Dictionary |publisher=William B. Eerdmans |location=Grand Rapids, Michigan |url=https://archive.org/details/eerdmansbibledic00myer/page/72 |editor=Myers |editor-first=Allen C. |page=[https://archive.org/details/eerdmansbibledic00myer/page/72 72] |isbn=978-0-8028-2402-8 |quote=It is generally agreed that Aramaic was the common language of Israel in the first century AD. Jesus and his disciples spoke the Galilean dialect, which was distinguished from that of Jerusalem (Matt. 26:73).}}</ref><ref name="Encyclopedia">{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/32043/Aramaic-language |title=Aramaic language |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=27 June 2019 |archive-date=27 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150427072726/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/32043/Aramaic-language |url-status=live }}</ref> Other than Aramaic and Hebrew, it is likely that he was also able to speak in [[Koine Greek]].<ref>{{Cite book | last=Porter | first=Stanley E. | author-link=Stanley E. Porter | title=Handbook to exegesis of the New Testament | publisher=Brill | year=1997 | isbn=90-04-09921-2 | pages=110–112 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | last=Hoffmann | first=R. Joseph | title=Jesus in history and myth | publisher=Prometheus Books | year=1986 | isbn=0-87975-332-3 | page=98 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=The Interpretation of Scripture in Early Judaism and Christianity: Studies in Language and Tradition|first=Craig A.|last=Evans|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-1841270760|date=1 June 2000|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WbbUAwAAQBAJ&dq=G.R.+Selby,+Jesus,+Aramaic+and+Greek&pg=PA244|access-date=13 August 2023|archive-date=6 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906220012/https://books.google.com/books?id=WbbUAwAAQBAJ&dq=G.R.+Selby,+Jesus,+Aramaic+and+Greek&pg=PA244|url-status=live}}</ref>

Modern scholars agree that Jesus was a Jew of 1st-century [[Judea]].{{sfn|Ehrman|1999|p= 96}} ''[[Ioudaios]]'' in New Testament Greek{{efn|In the New Testament, Jesus is described as Jewish / Judean (''[[Ioudaios]]'' as written in Koine Greek) on three occasions: by the Magi in [[Matthew 2]], who referred to Jesus as "King of the Jews" (''basileus ton ioudaion''); by both the [[Samaritan woman at the well]] and by Jesus himself in [[John 4]]; and (in all four gospels) during the Passion, by the Romans, who also used the phrase "King of the Jews".<ref>{{cite journal|first=John |last=Elliott|journal= Journal for the Study of the Historical Jesus |year=2007|volume= 5|issue= 119|title=Jesus the Israelite Was Neither a 'Jew' nor a 'Christian': On Correcting Misleading Nomenclature|page=119|doi=10.1177/1476869007079741|doi-access=free}}</ref>}} is a term which in the contemporary context may refer to religion ([[Second Temple Judaism]]), ethnicity (of Judea), or both.<ref>{{cite book |last=Garroway |first=Rabbi Joshua |url=https://archive.org/details/jewishannotatedn0000unse/page/524 |title=The Jewish Annotated New Testament |date=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-529770-6 |editor=Levine |editor-first=Amy-Jill |pages=[https://archive.org/details/jewishannotatedn0000unse/page/524 524–526] |chapter=Ioudaios |editor2=Brettler |editor-first2=Marc Z. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DZRJ5zXUI2QC&pg=PA524}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|first=David M.|last=Miller|title=The Meaning of ''Ioudaios'' and its Relationship to Other Group Labels in Ancient 'Judaism'|journal=Currents in Biblical Research|volume=9|issue=1|date=2010|pages=98–126|doi=10.1177/1476993X09360724|s2cid=144383064}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|first=Steve |last=Mason |title=Jews, Judaeans, Judaizing, Judaism: Problems of Categorization in Ancient History |journal=Journal for the Study of Judaism |volume=38 |issue=4 |date=2007 |pages=457–512 |url=http://www.stevemason.eu/resources/SMason-JSJ-2007-Jews-Judaism.pdf |doi=10.1163/156851507X193108 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150325062826/http://www.stevemason.eu/resources/SMason-JSJ-2007-Jews-Judaism.pdf |archive-date=25 March 2015}}</ref> In a review of the state of modern scholarship, [[Amy-Jill Levine]] writes that the entire question of ethnicity is "fraught with difficulty", and that "beyond recognizing that 'Jesus was Jewish', rarely does the scholarship address what being 'Jewish' means".{{sfn|Levine|2006|p=10}}

The New Testament gives no description of the physical appearance of Jesus before his death—it is generally indifferent to racial appearances and does not refer to the features of the people it mentions.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Robin M. |last=Jensen |title=Jesus in Christian art|encyclopedia=The Blackwell Companion to Jesus|editor-first=Delbert|editor-last= Burkett|year= 2010 |isbn= 978-1-4443-5175-0 |pages= 477–502 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons}}</ref><ref name="Perkinson30">{{cite book |last=Perkinson |first=Stephen |title=The likeness of the king: a prehistory of portraiture in late medieval France |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-226-65879-7 |location=Chicago, Illinois, USA |page=30 |language=en-us}}</ref><ref name="Kidd48">{{cite book|title=The forging of races: race and scripture in the Protestant Atlantic world|url=https://archive.org/details/forgingracesrace00kidd|url-access=limited|first= Colin|last= Kidd|year= 2006| isbn =978-1-139-45753-8 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages= [https://archive.org/details/forgingracesrace00kidd/page/n57 48]–51}}</ref> Jesus probably looked like a typical Jewish man of his time and place; standing around {{convert|166|cm|ftin|abbr=on}} tall with a thin but fit build, [[Olive skin|olive-brown skin]], brown eyes and short, dark hair. He also likely had a beard that was not particularly long or heavy.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Taylor |first1=Joan E. |title=What did Jesus look like? |date=2018 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing Plc |location=London |page=168|isbn=978-0-567-67150-9 |edition=1st |url=https://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/what-did-jesus-look-like-9780567671509/ |access-date=20 May 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222012/https://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/what-did-jesus-look-like-9780567671509/ |url-status=live }}</ref> His clothing may have suggested poverty, consisting of a mantle (shawl) with tassels, a knee-length basic tunic and sandals.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Taylor |first1=Joan |title=What Did Jesus Wear? |url=https://getpocket.com/explore/item/what-did-jesus-wear |website=Pocket |publisher=Mozilla |access-date=20 May 2020 |archive-date=20 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200520060147/https://getpocket.com/explore/item/what-did-jesus-wear |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Christ myth theory===
{{Main|Christ myth theory}}
The Christ myth theory is the hypothesis that Jesus of Nazareth never existed; or if he did, that he had virtually nothing to do with the founding of Christianity and the accounts in the [[gospels]].{{efn|Ehrman writes: "In simpler terms, the historical Jesus did not exist. Or if he did, he had virtually nothing to do with the founding of Christianity." Further quoting as authoritative the fuller definition provided by [[Earl Doherty]] in ''Jesus: Neither God Nor Man''. Age of Reason, 2009, pp. vii–viii: it is "the theory that no historical Jesus worthy of the name existed, that Christianity began with a belief in a spiritual, mythical figure, that the Gospels are essentially allegory and fiction, and that no single identifiable person lay at the root of the Galilean preaching tradition."{{sfn|Ehrman|2012|p=12}}}} Stories of Jesus' birth, along with other key events, have so many mythic elements that some scholars have suggested that Jesus himself was a myth.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|pp=113–15}}

[[Bruno Bauer]] (1809–1882) taught that the first Gospel was a work of literature that produced history rather than described it.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|p=90}}
According to [[Albert Kalthoff]] (1850–1906), a social movement produced Jesus when it encountered Jewish messianic expectations.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|p=90}}
[[Arthur Drews]] (1865–1935) saw Jesus as the concrete form of a myth that predated Christianity.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|p=90}}

Despite arguments put forward by authors who have questioned the existence of a [[historical Jesus]], virtually all scholars of antiquity accept that Jesus was a historical figure and consider Christ myth theory fringe.<ref>[[Bart Ehrman]]: "He certainly existed, as virtually every competent scholar of antiquity, Christian or non-Christian, agrees, based on certain and clear evidence." B. Ehrman, 2011 ''Forged: writing in the name of God,'' {{ISBN|978-0-06-207863-6}}. pp. 256–257.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Gullotta |first=Daniel N.|title=On Richard Carrier's Doubts: A Response to Richard Carrier's On the Historicity of Jesus: Why We Might Have Reason for Doubt|journal=Journal for the Study of the Historical Jesus|year=2017|volume=15|issue=2–3|pages=312|quote=[Per Jesus mythicism] Given the fringe status of these theories, the vast majority have remained unnoticed and unaddressed within scholarly circles.|doi=10.1163/17455197-01502009}}</ref><ref name="DunnPaul35">[[James D.G. Dunn|James D. G. Dunn]] "Paul's understanding of the death of Jesus" in ''Sacrifice and Redemption'' edited by S. W. Sykes (3 December 2007) Cambridge University Press {{ISBN|978-0-521-04460-8}} pp. 35–36.</ref><ref name="Then' 2004 page 34">Richard A. Burridge and Graham Gould (1 April 2004)''. Jesus Now and Then,'' {{ISBN|978-0-8028-0977-3}} p. 34.</ref><ref name="Jesus' page 200">Michael Grant (2004)''. Jesus'' {{ISBN|978-1-898799-88-7}} p. 200.</ref><ref name="Jesus' page 145">[[Graham Stanton]] (1989), ''The Gospels and Jesus''. {{ISBN|978-0-19-213241-3}} Oxford University Press, p. 145.</ref><ref name="voorst16">[[Robert E. Van Voorst]]. ''Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence.'' Eerdmans Publishing, 2000. {{ISBN|978-0-8028-4368-5}} p. 16.</ref>