Crucifixion of Jesus

==Medical aspects==
{{See also|Crucifixion#Cause of death}}
<!--There was a "Too many images" tag on this article once and the number of images
was reduced and they were moved to the gallery. Please try not too add images all over
the place in this article, to not attract another "Too many images" tag. -->
A number of theories to explain the circumstances of the death of Jesus on the cross have been proposed by [[physicians]] and Biblical scholars. In 2006, Matthew W. Maslen and Piers D. Mitchell reviewed over 40 publications on the subject with theories ranging from [[cardiac rupture]] to [[pulmonary embolism]].<ref>''Medical theories on the cause of death in Crucifixion '' J R Soc Med April 2006 vol. 99 no. 4 185–188. [http://jrs.sagepub.com/content/99/4/185.short] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150912162251/http://jrs.sagepub.com/content/99/4/185.short|date=September 12, 2015}}</ref>

[[File:Deposition of Christ C2RMF.jpg|thumb|left|180px|[[Bronzino]]'s ''Deposition of Christ'']]
In 1847, based on the reference in the Gospel of John ({{Bibleref2|John|19:34}}) to blood and water coming out when  Jesus's side was pierced with a spear, physician William Stroud proposed the ruptured heart theory of the cause of Christ's death which influenced a number of other people.<ref>William Stroud, 1847, ''Treatise on the Physical Death of Jesus Christ'' London: Hamilton and Adams.</ref><ref>William Seymour, 2003, ''The Cross in Tradition, History and Art'' {{ISBN|0-7661-4527-1}}</ref>

The cardiovascular collapse theory is a prevalent modern explanation and suggests that Jesus died of profound shock. According to this theory, the scourging, the beatings, and the fixing to the cross left Jesus dehydrated, weak, and critically ill and this led to cardiovascular collapse.<ref>[http://www.frugalsites.net/jesus/death.htm The Physical Death Of Jesus Christ, Study by The Mayo Clinic] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090131191153/http://www.frugalsites.net/jesus/death.htm |date=January 31, 2009 }} citing studies by Bucklin R (The legal and medical aspects of the trial and death of Christ. ''Sci Law'' 1970; 10:14–26), Mikulicz-Radeeki FV (The chest wound in the crucified Christ. ''Med News'' 1966; 14:30–40), Davis CT (The Crucifixion of Jesus: The passion of Christ from a medical point of view. ''Ariz Med'' 1965; 22:183–187), and Barbet P (''A Doctor at Calvary: The Passion of Out Lord Jesus Christ as Described by a Surgeon'', Earl of Wicklow (trans) Garden City, NY, Doubleday Image Books 1953, pp. 12–18, 37–147, 159–175, 187–208).</ref>

Writing in the ''[[Journal of the American Medical Association]]'', physician William Edwards and his colleagues supported the combined cardiovascular collapse (via [[hypovolemic]] shock) and exhaustion [[asphyxia]] theories, assuming that the flow of water from the side of Jesus described in the [[The Gospel of John|Gospel of John]]<ref>{{bibleverse|Jn.|19:34||19:34}}</ref> was [[pericardial fluid]].<ref>Edwards, William D.; Gabel, Wesley J.; Hosmer, Floyd E; ''On the Physical Death of Jesus'', JAMA March 21, 1986, Vol 255, No. 11, pp. 1455–1463 [http://www.godandscience.org/apologetics/deathjesus.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220126124914/http://www.godandscience.org/apologetics/deathjesus.pdf|date=January 26, 2022}}</ref>

In his book ''The Crucifixion of Jesus'', physician and [[forensic pathologist]] [[Frederick Zugibe]] studied the likely circumstances of the death of Jesus in great detail.<ref>Frederick Zugibe, 2005, ''The Crucifixion of Jesus: A Forensic Inquiry'' Evans Publishing, {{ISBN|1-59077-070-6}}</ref><ref>JW Hewitt, ''The Use of Nails in the Crucifixion '' Harvard Theological Review, 1932</ref> Zugibe carried out a number of experiments over several years to test his theories while he was a medical examiner.<ref name=experiments/> These studies included experiments in which volunteers with specific weights were hanging at specific angles and the amount of pull on each hand was measured, in cases where the feet were also secured or not. In these cases the amount of pull and the corresponding pain was found to be significant.<ref name="experiments">{{Cite web|url=http://www.crucifixion-shroud.com/experimental_studies_in_crucifix.htm|title=EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES in CRUCIFIXION|website=www.crucifixion-shroud.com|access-date=January 20, 2009|archive-date=March 9, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309183921/http://www.crucifixion-shroud.com/experimental_studies_in_crucifix.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Pierre Barbet (physician)|Pierre Barbet]], a French physician, and the chief surgeon at Saint Joseph's Hospital in Paris,<ref>[[New Scientist]] October 12, 1978, p. 96</ref> hypothesized that Jesus relaxed his muscles to obtain enough air to utter his last words, in the face of exhaustion asphyxia.<ref>Barbet, Pierre. ''Doctor at Calvary'', New York: Image Books, 1963.</ref> Some of Barbet's theories, such as the location of nails, are disputed by Zugibe.

[[Orthopedic surgeon]] Keith Maxwell not only analyzed the medical aspects of the crucifixion, but also looked back at how Jesus could have carried the cross all the way along [[Via Dolorosa]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://pmbcth.com/pmbc_037.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110117095319/http://www.pmbcth.com/pmbc_037.htm|url-status=dead|title=Keith Maxwell MD on the Crucifixion of Christ|archive-date=January 17, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.southasianconnection.com/articles/184/1/Jesus-Suffering-and-Crucifixion |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190608100234/http://www.southasianconnection.com/articles/184/1/Jesus-Suffering-and-Crucifixion |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 8, 2019 |title=Jesus' Suffering and Crucifixion from a Medical Point of View |publisher=Southasianconnection.com |date=April 7, 2007 |access-date=January 15, 2019 }}</ref>

In 2003, historians F. P. Retief and L. Cilliers reviewed the history and pathology of crucifixion as performed by the Romans and suggested that the cause of death was often a combination of factors. They also state that Roman guards were prohibited from leaving the scene until death had occurred.<ref name="retief">{{cite journal |last1=Retief |first1=FP |last2=Cilliers |first2=L. |title=The history and pathology of crucifixion. |journal=South African Medical Journal = Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir Geneeskunde |date=December 2003 |volume=93 |issue=12 |pages=938–841 |pmid=14750495 |url=http://www.samj.org.za/index.php/samj/article/viewFile/2462/1710 |access-date=November 3, 2018 |archive-date=April 14, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414121754/http://www.samj.org.za/index.php/samj/article/viewFile/2462/1710 |url-status=live }}</ref>