Cigarette Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! == Environmental effects == [[File:Cellulose Acetate.png|thumb|Simple molecular representation of cellulose acetate with one of the acetate groups on the cellulose backbone shown by the red circle]] Cigarette filters are made up of thousands of polymer chains of [[cellulose acetate]], which has the chemical structure shown to the right. Once discarded into the environment, the filters create a large [[waste]] problem. Cigarette filters are the most common form of [[litter]] in the world, as approximately 5.6 trillion cigarettes are smoked every year worldwide.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Novotny TE, Lum K, Smith E |title=Cigarettes butts and the case for an environmental policy on hazardous cigarette waste |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |volume=6 |issue=5 |pages=1691β705 |date=2009 |doi=10.3390/ijerph6051691|pmid=19543415 |pmc=2697937 |display-authors=etal|doi-access=free }}</ref> Of those, an estimated 4.5 trillion cigarette filters become litter every year.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://blog.chron.com/sciguy/2010/05/the-world-litters-4-5-trillion-cigarette-butts-a-year-can-we-stop-this/|title=The world litters 4.5 trillion cigarette butts a year. Can we stop this?|newspaper=[[The Houston Chronicle]]|access-date=September 16, 2014|archive-date=September 20, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140920180750/http://blog.chron.com/sciguy/2010/05/the-world-litters-4-5-trillion-cigarette-butts-a-year-can-we-stop-this/|url-status=live}}</ref> To develop an idea of the waste weight amount produced a year the table below was created. {| class="wikitable" |+ Estimated waste produced from filters ! Number of filters !! weight |- | 1 pack (20) || {{convert|0.12|oz|g|order=flip}} |- | sold daily (15 billion) || {{convert|5,625,000|lbs|kg|order=flip}} |- | sold yearly (5.6 trillion) || {{convert|2,100,000,000|lbs|kg|order=flip}} |- | estimated trash (4.5 trillion) || {{convert|1,687,500,000|lbs|kg|order=flip}} |} Discarded cigarette filters usually end up in the [[water system]] through drainage ditches and are transported by rivers and other waterways to the [[ocean pollution|ocean]]. === Aquatic life health concerns === In the 2006 International Coastal Cleanup, cigarettes and cigarette butts constituted 24.7% of the total collected pieces of garbage, over twice as many as any other category, which is not surprising seeing the numbers in the table above of waste produced each year.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oceanconservancy.org/site/DocServer/Final_ICC_report_2007_release.pdf?docID=2841 |title=International Coastal Cleanup 2006 Report, page 8 |access-date=November 13, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081126224658/http://www.oceanconservancy.org/site/DocServer/Final_ICC_report_2007_release.pdf?docID=2841 |archive-date=November 26, 2008 }}</ref> Cigarette filters contain the chemicals filtered from cigarettes and can leach into waterways and [[water supply|water supplies]].<ref>{{cite web| title=CigaretteLitter.org| url=http://www.cigarettelitter.org| access-date=May 28, 2007| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070522143853/http://www.cigarettelitter.org/| archive-date=May 22, 2007}}</ref> The toxicity of used cigarette filters depends on the specific tobacco blend and additives used by the cigarette companies. After a cigarette is smoked, the filter retains some of the chemicals, and some of those are considered [[carcinogenic]].<ref name="Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology" /> When studying the environmental effects of cigarette filters, the various chemicals that can be found in cigarette filters are not studied individually, due to the complexity of doing so. Researchers instead focus on the whole cigarette filter and its LD<sub>50</sub>. LD<sub>50</sub> is defined as the lethal dose that kills 50% of a sample population. This allows for a simpler study of the toxicity of cigarette filters. One recent study has looked at the toxicity of smoked cigarette filters (smoked filter + tobacco), smoked cigarette filters (no tobacco), and unsmoked cigarette filters (no tobacco). The results of the study showed that for the LD<sub>50</sub> of both marine topsmelt (''[[Atherinops affinis]]'') and freshwater [[fathead minnow]] (''Pimephales promelas''), smoked cigarette filters + tobacco are more toxic than smoked cigarette filters, but both are severely more toxic than unsmoked cigarette filters.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Slaughter E, Gersberg RM, Watanabe K, Rudolph J, Stransky C, Novotny TE |title=Toxicity of cigarette butts, and their chemical components, to marine and freshwater fish |journal=Tobacco Control |volume=20 |issue=Suppl_1 |pages=25β29 |date=2011 | doi = 10.1136/tc.2010.040170 |pmid=21504921 |pmc=3088407 }}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |+ LD<sub>50</sub> of cigarette filters to marine life (cigarette per liter) ! Cigarette type !! Marine topsmelt !! Fathead minnow |- | Smoked cigarette filter (smoked filter + tobacco) || 1.0 || 1.0 |- | Smoked cigarette filters (no tobacco) || 1.8 || 4.3 |- | Unsmoked cigarette filters (no tobacco) || 5.1 || 13.5 |} === Other health concerns === Toxic chemicals are not the only human health concern to take into considerations; the others are cellulose acetate and carbon particles that are breathed in while smoking. These particles are suspected of causing lung damage.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Pauly JL, Mepani AB, Lesses JD, Cummings KM, Streck RJ |title=Cigarettes with defective filters marketed for 40 years: what Philip Morris never told smokers |journal=Tob Control |volume=11 |issue= Suppl 1 |date=March 2002 |pmid=11893815 |pmc=1766058 |doi=10.1136/tc.11.suppl_1.i51 |at=pp. I51βI61; [http://tobaccocontrol.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/11/suppl_1/i51/T1 Table 1]}}</ref> The next health concern is that of plants. Under certain growing conditions, plants on average grow taller and have longer roots than those exposed to cigarette filters in the soil. A connection exists between cigarette filters introduced to soil and the depletion of some soil nutrients over time. Another health concern to the environment is not only the toxic carcinogens that are harmful to the wildlife, but also the filters themselves pose an ingestion risk to wildlife that may presume filter litter as food.<ref>{{Citation |author= Dahlberg ER|title=Cigarette Filters With Vegetation, soil, and Subterranean Environment |publisher=Hamline University |location=Saint Paul, Minnesota|date=April 11, 2006}}</ref> The last major health concern to make note of for marine life is the toxicity that deep marine topsmelt and fathead minnow pose to their predators. This could lead to toxin build-up ([[bioaccumulation]]) in the food chain and have long reaching negative effects. Smoldering cigarette filters have also been blamed for triggering fires from residential areas<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://news.smh.com.au/national/cigarette-butt-causes-1m-house-fire-20080914-4g27.html |title=Cigarette butt 'causes $1m house fire' |publisher=News.smh.com.au |date=September 14, 2008 |access-date=November 13, 2009 |archive-date=February 14, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090214123954/http://news.smh.com.au/national/cigarette-butt-causes-1m-house-fire-20080914-4g27.html |url-status=live }}</ref> to major [[wildfire]]s and [[bushfires]] which has caused major property damage and also death<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cigarettelitter.org/index.asp?PageName=Fires |title=The Facts About Cigarette Butts and Litter - Fire Danger |publisher=CigaretteLitter.Org |access-date=November 13, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090708012205/http://www.cigarettelitter.org/index.asp?PageName=Fires |archive-date=July 8, 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Perkin |first=Corrie |url=http://www.news.com.au/story/0,27574,25027063-1243,00.html |title=Cigarette butt blamed for West Bendigo fire; two dead, 50 homes lost | Victoria |work=News.com.au |date=February 9, 2009 |access-date=November 13, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225072926/http://www.news.com.au/story/0%2C27574%2C25027063-1243%2C00.html |archive-date=February 25, 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nswfb.nsw.gov.au/page.php?id=327 |title=Can cigarette butts start bushfires? - NSW Fire Brigades |publisher=Nswfb.nsw.gov.au |date=June 21, 2007 |access-date=November 13, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091017070157/http://www.nswfb.nsw.gov.au/page.php?id=327 |archive-date=October 17, 2009 }}</ref> as well as disruption to services by triggering alarms and warning systems.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2009/01/15/2466967.htm |title=Discarded cigarette butt causes airport chaos - ABC News (Australian Broadcasting Corporation) |publisher=Abc.net.au |date=January 15, 2009 |access-date=November 13, 2009 |archive-date=November 6, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091106020331/http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2009/01/15/2466967.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> === Degradation === Once in the environment, cellulose acetate can go through [[biodegradation]] and [[photodegradation]].<ref name=bat>{{cite web|url=http://www.bat.com/group/sites/UK__3MNFEN.nsf/vwPagesWebLive/4572237B0C2D456CC1257314004EF667 |title=British American Tobacco - Cigarettes |publisher=Bat.com |access-date=March 25, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303205818/http://www.bat.com/group/sites/UK__3MNFEN.nsf/vwPagesWebLive/4572237B0C2D456CC1257314004EF667 |archive-date=March 3, 2012 }}</ref><ref name=chicagotribune>{{cite web|url=http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2008-06-18/features/0806170174_1_cigarette-butts-secondhand-beach-house|title=Kicking butts|date=June 18, 2008 |access-date=September 16, 2014|archive-date=August 13, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110813050558/http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2008-06-18/features/0806170174_1_cigarette-butts-secondhand-beach-house|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Puls J, Wilson SA, Holter D |title=Degradation of Cellulose Acetate-Based Materials: A Review |journal=Journal of Polymers and the Environment |volume=19 |pages=152β165 |date=2011 |doi=10.1007/s10924-010-0258-0|doi-access=free }}</ref> Several factors go into determining the rate of each degradation process. This variance in rate and resistance to biodegradation in many conditions is a factor in littering<ref>[http://www.ceredigion.gov.uk/index.cfm?articleid=5364 Ceredigion County Council] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090108193818/http://www.ceredigion.gov.uk/index.cfm?articleid=5364 |date=January 8, 2009 }}</ref> and environmental damage.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.longwood.edu/cleanva/ciglitterarticle.htm |title=Bulletin of the American Littoral Society, Volume 26, Number 2, August 2000 |publisher=Longwood.edu |access-date=November 13, 2009 |archive-date=December 12, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201212143743/http://www.longwood.edu/cleanva/ciglitterarticle.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> [[File:Scan of Newport cigarettes found in Olneyville, Rhode Island - 2008.jpg|thumb|Discarded Newport cigarettes packs found in Olneyville, Rhode Island - 2008]] === Biodegradation === [[File:Chemical hydrolysis.png|thumb|400 px|Chemical hydrolysis of cellulose acetate]] The first step in the biodegradation of cellulose acetate is the deactylation of the acetate from the polymer chain (which is the opposite of [[acetylation]]). An acetate is a negative ion with the chemical formula of C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>3</sub>O<sub>2</sub><sup>β</sup>. Deacetylation can be performed by either chemical hydrolysis or [[acetylesterase]]. Chemical hydrolysis is the cleavage of a chemical bond by addition of water. In the reaction, water (H<sub>2</sub>O) reacts with the [[ethyl acetate|acetic ester]] functional group attached the cellulose polymer chain and forms an [[Alcohol (chemistry)|alcohol]] and [[acetate]]. The alcohol is simply the cellulose polymer chain with the acetate replaced with an alcohol group. The second reaction is exactly the same as chemical hydrolysis with the exception of the use of an [[acetylesterase]] enzyme. The enzyme, found in most plants, [[catalysis|catalyzes]] the [[chemical reaction]] shown below.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Acetylesterase-mediated deacetylation of pectin impairs cell elongation, pollen germination, and plant reproduction |date=January 2012 |pmid=22247250|doi=10.1105/tpc.111.092411|volume=24|issue=1|pmc=3289554|journal=Plant Cell|pages=50β65 | last1 = Gou | first1 = JY | last2 = Miller | first2 = LM | last3 = Hou | first3 = G | last4 = Yu | first4 = XH | last5 = Chen | first5 = XY | last6 = Liu | first6 = CJ}}{{dead link|date=July 2015}}</ref> :acetic ester + H<sub>2</sub>O {{eqm}} alcohol + acetate In the case of the enzymatic reaction, the two substrates (reactants) are again [[acetic ester]] and H<sub>2</sub>O, the two [[product (chemistry)|products]] of the reaction are [[Alcohol (chemistry)|alcohol]] and [[acetate]]. This reaction is exactly the same as the chemical hydrolysis. Both of these products are perfectly fine in the environment. Once the acetate group is removed from the cellulose chain, the polymer can be readily degraded by [[cellulase]], which is another enzyme found in [[fungus|fungi]], [[bacteria]], and [[protozoa]]ns. Cellulases break down the cellulose molecule into monosaccharides ("simple sugars") such as beta-[[glucose]], or shorter [[polysaccharide]]s and [[oligosaccharide]]s. [[File:Cellulos to glycose.png|thumb|400 px|The chemical structure change of cellulose into glucose]]These simple sugars are not harmful to the environment and are in fact are a useful product for many plants and animals. The breakdown of cellulose is of interest in the field of biofuel.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2010/ph240/jin2/|title=Breaking Down Cellulose|website=large.stanford.edu|access-date=November 25, 2014|archive-date=November 25, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141125041840/http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2010/ph240/jin2/|url-status=live}}</ref> Due to the conditions that affect the process, large variation in the degradation time of cellulose acetate occurs. === Factors in biodegradation === The duration of the biodegradation process is cited as taking as little as one month<ref name=bat/> to as long as 15 years or more, depending on the environmental conditions. The major factor that affects the biodegradation duration is the availability of acetylesterase and cellulase enzymes. Without these enzymes, biodegradation only occurs through chemical hydrolysis and stops there. Temperature is another major factor: if the organisms that contain the enzymes are too cold to grow, then biodegradation is severely hindered. Availability of oxygen in the environment also affects the degradation. Cellulose acetate is degraded within 2β3 weeks under [[Aerobic respiration|aerobic]] assay systems of ''[[in vitro]]'' enrichment cultivation techniques and an activated sludge wastewater treatment system.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Buchanan CM, Garder RM, Komarek RJ |title=Aerobic biodegradation of cellulose acetate |journal=Journal of Applied Polymer Science |volume=47 |issue=10 |pages=1709β1719 |date=1993 |doi=10.1002/app.1993.070471001}}</ref> It is degraded within 14 weeks under [[Anaerobic respiration|anaerobic]] conditions of incubation with special cultures of fungi.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Rivard CJ, Adney WS, Himmel ME, Mitchell DJ, Vinzant TB, Grohmann K, Moens L, Chum H |title=Effects of Natural Polymer Acetlation on the anaerobic Dioconversion to Methane and Carbon Dioxide |journal=Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology |volume=34/35 |pages=725β736 |date=1992 |doi=10.1007/bf02920592 |s2cid=84432678 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1232570 |access-date=June 24, 2019 |archive-date=June 24, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190624060422/https://zenodo.org/record/1232570 |url-status=live }}</ref> Ideal conditions were used for the degradation (i.e., a suitable temperature, and available organisms to provide the enzymes). Thus, filters last longer in places with low oxygen concentration, such as swamps and bogs. Overall, the biodegradation process of cellulose acetate is not an instantaneous process. === Photodegradation === The other process of degradation is [[photodegradation]], which is when a molecular bond is broken by the absorption of photon radiation (i.e. light). Due to cellulose acetate carbonyl groups, the molecule naturally absorbs light at 260 nm,<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Hon NS |title=Photodegradation of Cellulose Acetate Fibers |journal=Journal of Polymer Science Part A: Polymer Chemistry |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=725β744 |date=1977 |doi=10.1002/pol.1977.170150319|bibcode=1977JPoSA..15..725H }}</ref> but it contains some impurities which can absorb light. These impurities are known to absorb light in the far UV light region (< 280 nm).<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Hosono K, Kanazawa A, Mori H, Endo T |title=Photodegradation of Cellulose Acetate film in the presence of bensophenone as a photosensitizer |journal=Journal of Applied Polymer Science |volume=105 |issue=6 |pages=3235β3239 |date=2007 |doi=10.1002/app.26386|doi-access=free }}</ref> The atmosphere filters radiation from the sun and allows radiation of > 300 nm only to reach the surface. Thus, the primary photodegradation of cellulose acetate is considered insignificant to the total degradation process, since cellulose acetate and its impurities absorb light at shorter wavelengths. Research is focused on the secondary mechanisms of photodegradation of cellulose acetate to help make up for some of the limitations of biodegradation. The secondary mechanisms would be the addition of a compound to the filters that would be able to absorb natural light and use it to start the degradation process. The main two areas of research are in photocatalytic oxidation<ref>{{cite web |url=http://allergyclean.com/news/uvpcoformaldehyde.htm |title=Study on Photocatalytic Oxidation (PCO) Raises Questions About Formaldehyde as a Byproduct in Indoor Air |access-date=May 30, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150426065810/http://allergyclean.com/news/uvpcoformaldehyde.htm |archive-date=April 26, 2015 }}</ref> and photosensitized degradation.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/458153/photosensitization|title=photosensitization - chemistry|encyclopedia=EncyclopΓ¦dia Britannica|access-date=May 30, 2015}}</ref> Photocatalytic oxidation uses a species that absorbs radiation and creates hydroxyl radicals that react with the filters and start the breakdown. Photosensitized degradation, though, uses a species that absorbs radiation and transfers the energy to the cellulose acetate to start the degradation process. Both processes use other species that absorbed light > 300 nm to start the degradation of cellulose acetate.{{citation needed|date=December 2014}} === Solution and remediation projects === [[File:Buttout.jpg|thumb|right|A cigarette disposal canister, encouraging the public to dispose of their cigarettes properly]] Several options are available to help reduce the environmental effects of cigarette butts. Proper disposal into [[Cigarette receptacle|receptacle]]s leads to decreased numbers found in the environment and their effect on the environment. Another method is making fines and penalties for littering filters; many governments have sanctioned stiff penalties for littering of cigarette filters; for example, [[Washington (state)|Washington]] imposes a penalty of $1,025 for littering cigarette filters.<ref>{{cite web |date = June 1, 2004 |url = http://www.ecy.wa.gov/news/2004news/2004-097.html |publisher = State of Washington Department of Ecology |location = Washington |title = Accidents, fires: Price of littering goes beyond fines |access-date = May 6, 2009 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20091012100713/http://www.ecy.wa.gov/news/2004news/2004-097.html |archive-date = October 12, 2009 }}</ref> Another option is developing better biodegradable filters; much of this work relies heavily on the research in the secondary mechanism for photodegradation as stated above, but a new research group has developed an acid tablet that goes inside the filters, and once wet enough, releases acid that speeds up the degradation to around two weeks.<ref>{{cite web| date = August 14, 2012| url = http://www.environmentalhealthnews.org/ehs/newscience/2012/06/2012-0725-biodegradable-cigarette-filters| title = No more butts: biodegradable filters a step to boot litter problem| publisher = Environmental Health News| access-date = November 25, 2014| archive-date = November 29, 2014| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141129225410/http://www.environmentalhealthnews.org/ehs/newscience/2012/06/2012-0725-biodegradable-cigarette-filters| url-status = live}}</ref> The research is still only in test phase and the hope is soon it will go into production. The next option is using cigarette packs with a compartment in which to discard cigarette butts, implementing monetary deposits on filters, increasing the availability of butt receptacles, and expanding public education. It may even be possible to ban the sale of filtered cigarettes altogether on the basis of their adverse environmental effects.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Cigarette Butts and the Case for an Environmental Policy on Hazardous Cigarette Waste |journal = International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health|volume = 6|issue = 5|pages = 1691β1705|doi = 10.3390/ijerph6051691|pmid = 19543415|pmc = 2697937|year = 2009|last1 = Novotny|first1 = Thomas|last2 = Lum|first2 = Kristen|last3 = Smith|first3 = Elizabeth|last4 = Wang|first4 = Vivian|last5 = Barnes|first5 = Richard|doi-access = free}}</ref> Recent research has been put into finding ways to use the filter waste to develop a desired product. One research group in South Korea has developed a simple one-step process that converts the cellulose acetate in discarded cigarette filters into a high-performing material that could be integrated into computers, handheld devices, electrical vehicles, and wind turbines to store energy. These materials have demonstrated superior performance as compared to commercially available carbon, grapheme, and carbon [[carbon nanotube|nanotubes]]. The product is showing high promise as a green alternative for the waste problem.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Minzae L, Gil-Pyo K, Hyeon DS, Soomin P, Jongheop Y |s2cid=8692351 |title=Preparation of energy storage material derived from a used cigarette filter for a supercapacitor electrode |journal= Nanotechnology|volume=25 |issue=34 |page=34 |date=2014 |doi=10.1088/0957-4484/25/34/345601 |pmid=25092115 |bibcode=2014Nanot..25H5601L |doi-access=free }}</ref> <!-- == Prices == {| class="wikitable sortable"| |- !nowrap|'''Country/Territory''' !nowrap|'''USD/20 pack''' !nowrap|'''β¬/20 pack''' !nowrap|'''Local currency/20 pack''' !nowrap|'''Date of price''' !nowrap|'''Sources''' |- |Ireland |10.50 |10.00 |β¬10.00 |2012-07-16 |[http://www.independent.ie/business/budget/exclusive-price-of-cigarettes-to-rise-to-10-a-pack-30662237.html] |- |United Kingdom |12 |9.40 |Β£7.50 |2012-03-21 |[https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2012/mar/21/budget-2012-hits-smokers-37p] |- |New Zealand |13.13 |10.10 |NZ$16 |2013-01-01 |[http://www.stuff.co.nz/the-press/news/8123959/Smokers-not-put-off-by-price-hike] |- |Philippines |1 |0.75 |Php.50 |2013-06-05 |- |Poland |4.75 |3.70 |15.50 PLN |2013-05-18 |[http://www.fakt.pl/Papierosy-drozeja-Ceny-fajek-w-gore-Ile-kosztuja-papierosy-Ceny-papierosow-Podwyzka-papierosow-Akcyza-na-papierosy-w-gore-,artykuly,178454,1.html] |- |U.S. ([[New York]]) |12.50 |9.80 |$12.50 |2012-06-26 |[http://www.theawl.com/2012/06/pack-of-cigarettes-cost] |- |U.S. ([[Virginia]]) |4.60 |3.50 |$4.56 |2013-04-11 |[http://dcist.com/2013/04/with_proposed_tax_cigarette_prices.php] |- |Australia |17.80 |14.10 |A$20 (A$25/ 25 pack) |2014-08-31 |[https://www.smh.com.au/federal-politics/political-news/a-dollar-to-light-up-smokers-brace-for-another-jump-in-tobacco-excise-20140831-10aln2.html] |- |Norway |15.50 |12.20 |NOK90 |2012-05-12 |[http://www.newsinenglish.no/2012/05/14/duty-free-tobacco-comes-under-fire/] |- |Singapore |10 |8 |$12.00 |2014-09-25 |[http://www.expatistan.com/price/cigarretes/singapore] |- |Malaysia |3.97 |3.10 |13.00 RM |2014-09-25 |[http://www.expatistan.com/price/cigarretes/kuala-lumpur] |- |South Africa |3.11 |2.33 |R31.00 |2013-06-14 |[http://www.numbeo.com/cost-of-living/country_result.jsp?country=South+Africa] |- |Thailand |2.15 |1.55 |Baht 65.00 |2014-09-02 | |- |Canada ([[Manitoba]]) |10.75 |7.92 |C$11.20 ($14/25 pack) C$9.60 (20 pack) British Columbia | | |- |Indonesia |1.59 |1.24 |Rp 19,075 |2014-09-25 |[http://www.expatistan.com/price/cigarretes/jakarta] |- |Romania |4.4 |3.4 |15 RON |2014-09-09 |[http://www.carrefour-online.ro/bauturi_si_tutun/tigari/] |- |India |2.9 |2.57 |INR 220 |2015-01-21 |[http://www.numbeo.com/cost-of-living/country_result.jsp?country=India] |} --> Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. 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