Chinese folk religion

===Organised folk religious sects===
{{Main|Chinese salvationist religions}}
[[File:Main temple of the City of the Eight Symbols (八卦城), the holy see of Weixinism (唯心教) in Hebi (鹤壁市), Henan, China.jpg|thumb|The City of the Eight Symbols in [[Qi County, Hebi|Qi]], [[Hebi]], is the headquarters of the Weixinist Church in [[Henan]].]]

China has a long history of sect traditions characterised by a [[soteriology|soteriological]] and [[eschatology|eschatological]] character, often called "salvationist religions" ({{lang-zh|救度宗教}} ''jiùdù zōngjiào'').{{sfnp|Palmer|2011|p=19}}  They emerged from the common religion but are not part of the lineage cult of [[ancestor]]s and [[progenitor]]s, nor the communal deity religion of village temples, neighbourhood, corporations, or national temples.{{sfnp|Palmer|2011|pp=19–20}}

[[Prasenjit Duara]] has termed them "redemptive societies" ({{lang-zh|救世團體}} ''jiùshì tuántǐ''),{{sfnp|Palmer|2011|p=17}}{{sfnb|Clart|2014|p=395}} while modern Chinese scholarship describes them as "folk religious sects" ({{lang-zh|民間宗教}} ''mínjiān zōngjiào'', {{lang-zh|民間教門}} ''mínjiān jiàomén'' or {{lang-zh|民间教派}} ''mínjiān jiàopài''),{{sfnp|Palmer|2011|p=12}} abandoning the derogatory term used by imperial officials, ''xiéjiào'' ({{lang-zh|邪教}}), "evil religion".{{sfnp|Palmer|2011|p=23}}

They are characterised by several elements, including [[egalitarianism]]; foundation by a charismatic figure; direct divine revelation; a [[millenarianism|millenarian]] eschatology and voluntary path of [[salvation]]; an embodied experience of the numinous through healing and cultivation; and an expansive orientation through good deeds, [[evangelism]] and [[philanthropy]].{{sfnp|Palmer|2011|p=19}} Their practices are focused on improving morality, body cultivation, and recitation of scriptures.{{sfnp|Palmer|2011|p=19}}

Many of the redemptive religions of the 20th and 21st century aspire to become the repository of the entirety of the Chinese tradition in the face of Western modernism and materialism.{{sfnp|Palmer|2011|p=29}} This group of religions includes{{sfnp|Palmer|2011|pp=4–6}} [[Yiguandao]] and other sects belonging to the [[Xiantiandao]] ({{lang-zh|先天道}} "Way of Former Heaven"), Jiugongdao ({{lang-zh|九宮道}} "Way of the Nine Palaces"), various proliferations of the [[Luo teaching]], the [[Zaili teaching]], and the more recent [[De teaching]], Weixinist, [[Xuanyuan teaching|Xuanyuan]] and [[Tiandi teachings]], the latter two focused respectively on the worship of [[Yellow Emperor|Huangdi]] and the universal God. Also, the [[qigong]] schools are developments of the same religious context.{{sfnp|Palmer|2011|p=11}}

These folk sectarian offer different world views and compete for influence. To take one example, [[Yiguandao]] focuses on personal salvation through inner work and considers itself the most valid "Way of Heaven" ({{lang-zh|天道}} ''Tiāndào''). Yiguandao offers its own "[[Xiantiandao|Way of Former Heaven]]" ({{lang-zh|先天道}} ''Xiāntiāndào''), that is, a cosmological definition of the state of things prior to creation, in unity with God. It regards the other [[Way of the Gods according to the Confucian Tradition|Luanism]], a cluster of churches which focus on social morality through refined Confucian ritual to worship the gods, as the "Way of Later Heaven" ({{lang-zh|後天道}} ''Hòutiāndào''), that is the cosmological state of created things.{{sfnb|Clart|1997|pp=12–13 & ''passim''}}

These movements were banned in the early [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republican China]] and later Communist China. Many of them still remain illegal, underground or unrecognised in [[China]], while others—specifically the De teaching, Tiandi teachings, Xuanyuan teaching, Weixinism and Yiguandao—have developed cooperation with mainland China's academic and non-governmental organisations.<ref name="RCTC2014"/> The [[Sanyi teaching]] is an organised folk religion founded in the 16th century, present in the [[Putian]] region ([[Putian people|Xinghua]]) of [[Fujian]] where it is legally recognised.<ref name="RCTC2014"/> Some of these sects began to register as branches of the state Taoist Association since the 1990s.<ref name="Goossaert, Palmer. 2011. p. 347">Goossaert, Palmer. 2011. p. 347, quote: "[Since the 1990s]&nbsp;... a number of ... [[Chinese salvationist religions|lay salvationist groups]] (such as Xiantiandao in southern China and Hongyangism [{{lang-zh|弘陽教}} ''Hóngyáng jiào''] in Hebei) also successfully registered with the Taoist association, thus gaining legitimacy".</ref>

A further distinctive type of sects of the folk religion, that are possibly the same as the positive "secret sects", are the martial sects. They combine two aspects: the ''wénchǎng'' ({{lang-zh|文場}} "cultural field"), that is the doctrinal aspect characterised by elaborate cosmologies, theologies, initiatory and ritual patterns, and that is usually kept secretive; and the ''wǔchǎng'' ({{lang-zh|武場}} "martial field"), that is the body cultivation practice and that is usually the "public face" of the sect.<ref name="Ambrosi2013">Raymond Ambrosi. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20150104152959/http://www.goethe.de/ins/cn/en/lp/kul/mag/dis/swl/11980640.html Towards the City! Towards the Country! Old Martial Art Strengthens Social Cohesion in Chinese Rural Areas]''. Goethe-Institut China, 2013.</ref> They were outlawed by Ming imperial edicts that continued to be enforced until the fall of the Qing dynasty in the 20th century.<ref name="Ambrosi2013"/> An example of martial sect is [[Meihuaism]] ({{lang-zh|梅花教}} ''Méihuājiào'', "Plum Flowers"), that has become very popular throughout northern China.<ref name="Ambrosi2013"/><ref>{{cite journal | last = Ambrosi | first = Raymond P. | title = Interconnections amongst Folk Religions, Civil Society and Community Development: Meihua Boxers as Constructors of Social Trust and the Agrarian Public Sphere | journal = Modern China | date = 2015}}</ref> In [[Taiwan]], virtually all of the "redemptive societies" operate freely since the late 1980s.

====Tiandi teachings====
The Tiandi teachings are a religion that encompasses two branches, the Holy Church of the Heavenly Virtue ({{lang-zh|天德聖教}} ''Tiāndé shèngjiào'') and the Church of the Heavenly Deity ({{lang-zh|天帝教}} ''Tiāndìjiào''), both emerged from the teachings of Xiao Changming and Li Yujie, disseminated in the early 20th century.<ref name="Vermander">Benoit Vermander. ''[http://www.theway.org.uk/Back/39Vermander.pdf Christianity and the Taiwanese Religious Landscape] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140502223949/http://www.theway.org.uk/Back/39Vermander.pdf |date=2 May 2014 }}''. On: ''The Way'', 39, 1999. London Society of Jesus. pp. 129–139</ref> The latter is actually an outgrowth of the former established in the 1980s.<ref name="Vermander"/>

The religions focus on the worship of ''Tiandi'' ({{lang-zh|天帝}}), the "Heavenly Deity" or "Heavenly Emperor",<ref name="Vermander"/> on health through the proper cultivation of [[qi]],<ref name="Vermander"/> and teach a style of qigong named ''Tianren qigong''.<ref>Evelyne Micollier. ''Realignments in Religion and Health Practices: An Approach to the "New Religions" in Taiwanese Society''. On: ''China Perspectives'', 16, 1998. pp. 34–40</ref> According to scholars, Tiandi teachings derive from the [[Taoism|Taoist]] tradition of [[Mount Hua|Huashan]],<ref>Ju Keyi, Lu Xianlong. ''Tiandi jiao: The Daoist Connection''. On: ''Journal of Daoist Studies''. Vol. 7, 2014. p. 195</ref> where Li Yujie studied for eight years.{{sfnp|Palmer|2011|p=27}} The Church of the Heavenly Deity is very active both in Taiwan and mainland China, where it has high-level links.<ref name="Vermander"/>

====Weixinism====
{{Main|Weixinism}}
Weixinism ({{zh|c=唯心聖教|p=Wéixīn shèngjiào|l=Holy Religion of the Only Heart}} or {{zh|c=唯心教|p=Wéixīnjiào|labels=no}}) is a religion primarily focused on the "orthodox lineages of ''[[Yijing]]'' and [[feng shui]]",<ref>"[http://hunyuan.tw/m/?disp=pwpeace&language=ENG&page=5 Weixinism propagates Chinese culture and Yi-Ching]". Hun Yuan's website. [https://web.archive.org/web/20171231234558/http://hunyuan.tw/m/?disp=pwpeace&language=ENG&page=5 Archived on 31 December 2017].</ref> the [[Hundred Schools of Thought]],<ref name="worldpeace">"[http://hunyuan.tw/?disp=pwpeace&language=ENG&page=10 Grand Master Hun Yuan leads Weixinism for world peace]". Hun Yuan's website. [https://web.archive.org/web/20171214203559/http://hunyuan.tw/?disp=pwpeace&language=ENG&page=10 Archived on 14 December 2017].</ref> and worship of the "three great ancestors" ([[Yellow Emperor|Huangdi]], [[Yan Emperor|Yandi]] and [[Chi You|Chiyou]]).<ref>"[http://www.cjs.org.tw/news2011/right_m_en/right_ch4_1_2.aspx Honoring the contribution of the Three-Great-Chinese-Ancestor Culture to develop world peace]". Hun Yuan's website. [https://web.archive.org/web/20171214203516/http://www.cjs.org.tw/news2011/right_m_en/right_ch4_1_2.aspx Archived on 14 December 2017].</ref> The movement promotes the restoration of the authentic roots of the Chinese civilization and [[Chinese unification]].<ref name="worldpeace"/>

The Weixinist Church, whose headquarters are in Taiwan, is also active in [[Mainland China]] in the key birthplaces of the Chinese culture. It has links with the government of [[Henan]] where it has established the "City of Eight Trigrams" templar complex on Yunmeng Mountain (of the [[Yan Mountains]]),<ref>"[http://www.cjs.org.tw/news2011/right_m_en/right_ch4_1_5.aspx Build the City of the Eight Trigrams on Yunmeng Mountain, integrate the differences within Chinese culture, and support the union of the Chinese people]". Hun Yuan's website. [https://web.archive.org/web/20170620172656/http://www.cjs.org.tw/news2011/right_m_en/right_ch4_1_5.aspx Archived on 20 June 2017].</ref> and it has also built temples in [[Hebei]].<ref>"[http://www.cjs.org.tw/news2011/right_m_en/right_ch4_1_3.aspx Build temples for the Three Great Chinese Ancestors, solidify the national union, and pray together for Cross-Strait and worldwide peace]". Hun Yuan's website. [https://web.archive.org/web/20170620160927/http://www.cjs.org.tw/news2011/right_m_en/right_ch4_1_3.aspx Archived on 20 June 2017].</ref>