Aristotle

==== Soul ====
{{further | On the Soul}}
[[File:Aristotelian Soul.png| thumb | upright=1.5 | Aristotle proposed a three-part [[Soul#Aristotle|structure for souls]] of plants, animals, and humans, making humans unique in having all three types of soul.]]

Aristotle's [[psychology]], given in his treatise ''[[On the Soul]]'' (''peri psychēs''), posits three kinds of [[soul]] ("psyches"): the vegetative soul, the sensitive soul, and the rational soul. Humans have all three. The vegetative soul is concerned with growth and nourishment. The sensitive soul experiences sensations and movement. The unique part of the human, rational soul is its ability to receive forms of other things and to compare them using the ''[[Nous#Aristotle|nous]]'' (intellect) and ''logos'' (reason).{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | pages=156–163}}

For Aristotle, the soul is the [[Hylomorphism#Body–soul hylomorphism|form]] of a living being. Because all beings are composites of form and matter, the form of living beings is that which endows them with what is specific to living beings, e.g. the ability to initiate movement (or in the case of plants, growth and transformations, which Aristotle considers types of movement).{{sfn| Shields | 2016}} In contrast to earlier philosophers, but in accordance with the Egyptians, he placed the rational soul in the heart, rather than the brain.{{sfn| Mason | 1979 | p=45}} Notable is Aristotle's division of sensation and thought, which generally differed from the concepts of previous philosophers, with the exception of [[Alcmaeon of Croton|Alcmaeon]].{{sfn| Guthrie | 2010 | p=348}}

In ''On the Soul'', Aristotle famously criticizes Plato's theory of the soul and develops his own in response. The first criticism is against Plato's view of the soul in the ''Timaeus'' that the soul takes up space and is able to come into physical contact with bodies.<ref>''On the Soul'' I.3 406b26-407a10. For some scholarship, see Carter, Jason W. 2017. 'Aristotle's Criticism of Timaean Psychology' ''Rhizomata'' 5: 51–78 and Douglas R. Campbell. 2022. "Located in Space: Plato's Theory of Psychic Motion" ''Ancient Philosophy'' 42 (2): 419–442.</ref> 20th-century scholarship overwhelmingly opposed Aristotle's interpretation of Plato and maintained that he had misunderstood him.<ref>For instance, W.D. Ross argued that Aristotle "may well be criticized as having taken [Plato's] myth as if it were sober prose." See Ross, William D. ed. 1961. ''Aristotle: De Anima''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. The quotation is from page 189.</ref> Today's scholars have tended to re-assess Aristotle's interpretation and been more positive about it.<ref>See, e.g., Douglas R. Campbell, "Located in Space: Plato's Theory of Psychic Motion," ''Ancient Philosophy'' 42 (2): 419–442. 2022.</ref> Aristotle's other criticism is that Plato's view of reincarnation entails that it is possible for a soul and its body to be mis-matched; in principle, Aristotle alleges, any soul can go with any body, according to Plato's theory.<ref>''On the Soul'' I.3''.''407b14–27. Christopher Shields summarizes it thus: "We might think that an old leather-bound edition of Machiavelli's ''The Prince'' could come to bear the departed soul of Richard Nixon. Aristotle regards this sort of view as worthy of ridicule.” See Shields, C. 2016. ''Aristotle: De Anima''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. The quotation is from page 133.</ref> Aristotle's claim that the soul is the form of a living being eliminates that possibility and thus rules out reincarnation.<ref>There's a large scholarly discussion of this dialectic between Plato and Aristotle here: Douglas R. Campbell, "The Soul's Tool: Plato on the Usefulness of the Body," ''Elenchos'' 43 (1): 7–27. 2022.</ref>