Witchcraft

=== Europe ===
{{Main|European witchcraft}}
{{citations needed section|date=October 2023}}
[[File:Sawyer Elizabeth; witch Wellcome L0000656.jpg|thumb|[[Elizabeth Sawyer]], witch executed in 1620]]
European witchcraft is a multifaceted historical and cultural phenomenon that unfolded over centuries, leaving a mark on the continent's social, religious, and legal landscapes. The roots of European witchcraft trace back to [[classical antiquity]] when concepts of [[magic and religion]] were closely related, and society closely integrated [[magic (supernatural)|magic]] and [[supernatural]] beliefs. During the [[Middle Ages]], accusations of [[heresy]] and [[devil worship]] grew more prevalent. By the [[early modern period]], major [[witch hunts]] began to take place, partly fueled by religious tensions, societal anxieties, and economic upheaval. Witches were often viewed as dangerous sorceresses or sorcerers in a [[Deal with the Devil|pact with the Devil]], capable of causing harm through [[black magic]].{{r|Ehrenreich|page= [https://archive.org/details/witchesmidwivesn0000ehre/page/29/mode/2up 29],  [https://archive.org/details/witchesmidwivesn0000ehre/page/54/mode/2up 54]}} A [[Feminist interpretations of witch trials in the early modern period|feminist interpretation of the witch trials]] is that [[Misogyny|misogynist]] views led to the association of women and [[Sorcery (goetia)|malevolent witchcraft]].{{r|Ehrenreich|page= [https://archive.org/details/witchesmidwivesn0000ehre/page/29/mode/2up 29],  [https://archive.org/details/witchesmidwivesn0000ehre/page/54/mode/2up 54]}}

One pivotal text that shaped the witch-hunts was the ''[[Malleus Maleficarum]]'', a 1486 treatise that provided a framework for identifying, prosecuting, and punishing witches. The burgeoning influence of the [[Catholic Church]]{{cn|date=October 2023}} led to a wave of [[witch trials in the early modern period|witch trials]] across Europe. Usually, accusations of witchcraft were made by neighbours and followed from social tensions. Accusations often targeted marginalized individuals, including women, the elderly, and those who did not conform to societal norms. Women made accusations as often as men. The common people believed that magical healers (called '[[cunning folk]]' or 'wise people') could undo bewitchment. [[Ronald Hutton|Hutton]] says that healers and cunning folk "were sometimes denounced as witches, but seem to have made up a minority of the accused in any area studied".{{r|HuttonFear|p=24-25}} The witch-craze reached its peak between the 16th and 17th centuries, resulting in the execution of tens of thousands of people. This dark period of history reflects the confluence of [[superstition]], fear, and authority, as well as the societal tendency to find [[scapegoats]] for complex problems.

The [[Tsardom of Russia]] also experienced its own iteration of witchcraft trials during the 17th century. Witches were often accused of practicing [[Sorcery (goetia)|sorcery]] and engaging in [[Supernatural|supernatural activities]], leading to their [[excommunication]] and execution. The blending of [[ecclesiastical]] and [[Secularism|secular]] jurisdictions in Russia's approach to witchcraft trials highlighted the intertwined nature of religious and political power during that time. As the 17th century progressed, the fear of witches shifted from mere superstition to a tool for political manipulation, with accusations used to target individuals who posed threats to the ruling elite.

Since the 1940s, [[neopagan witchcraft]] movements have emerged in Europe, seeking to revive and reinterpret ancient pagan and mystical practices. [[Wicca]], pioneered by [[Gerald Gardner]], stands out as one of the most influential neopagan traditions. Drawing inspiration from [[ceremonial magic]], historical paganism, and the now-discredited [[witch-cult theory]], [[Wicca]] emphasizes a connection to nature, the [[Divinity|divine]], and personal growth. Similarly, [[Stregheria]] in Italy reflects a desire to reconnect with the country's pre-Christian spiritual roots. Many of these neopagans choose to self-identify as "witches". Contemporary, neopagan witchcraft in Europe encompasses a wide range of traditions, reflecting a blend of historical influences, modern interpretations, new religious movements, and a search for spiritual authenticity in a rapidly changing world.

==== Ancient Roman world ====<!--this is a summary of [[European witchcraft#Antiquity]]-->
{{Main|European witchcraft#Antiquity}}
[[File:Caius Furius Cressinus Accused of Sorcery LACMA M.82.119.jpg|thumb|''Caius Furius Cressinus Accused of Sorcery'', [[Jean-Pierre Saint-Ours]], 1792]]
During the [[Ancient Roman religion|pagan]] era of [[ancient Rome]], there were laws against harmful magic.<ref name="Dickie">{{cite book |last1=Dickie |first1=Matthew |title=Magic and Magicians in the Greco-Roman World |date=2003 |publisher=Routledge |pages=138–142}}</ref> According to [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]], the [[5th century BC]] laws of the [[Twelve Tables]] laid down penalties for uttering harmful incantations and for stealing the fruitfulness of someone else's crops by magic.<ref name="Dickie"/> The only recorded trial involving this law was that of [[Gaius Furius Cresimus]].<ref name="Dickie"/>

The [[Classical Latin]] word {{lang|la|veneficium}} meant both poisoning and causing harm by magic (such as magic potions), although ancient people would not have distinguished between the two.{{r|HuttonFear|p=59-66}} In 331 BC, a deadly epidemic hit Rome and at least 170 women were executed for causing it by ''veneficium''. In 184–180 BC, another epidemic hit Italy, and about 5,000 were executed for ''veneficium''.{{r|HuttonFear|p=59-66}} If the reports are accurate, writes [[Ronald Hutton|Hutton]], "then the [[Roman Republic|Republican Romans]] hunted witches on a scale unknown anywhere else in the ancient world".{{r|HuttonFear|p=59-66}}

Under the ''[[Lex Cornelia de sicariis et veneficis]]'' of 81 BC, killing by ''veneficium'' carried the death penalty. During the early [[Roman Empire|Imperial era]], the ''Lex Cornelia'' began to be used more broadly against other kinds of magic,{{r|HuttonFear|p=59-66}} including sacrifices made for evil purposes. The magicians were to be burnt at the stake.<ref name="Dickie"/>

Witch characters—women who work powerful evil magic—appear in ancient Roman literature from the first century BC onward. They are typically [[hag]]s who chant harmful incantations; make poisonous potions from herbs and the body parts of animals and humans; sacrifice children; raise the dead; can control the natural world; can shapeshift themselves and others into animals; and invoke underworld deities and spirits. They include [[Lucan]]'s [[Erichtho]], [[Horace]]'s [[Epodes (Horace)|Canidia]], [[Ovid]]'s Dipsas, and [[Apuleius]]'s [[The Golden Ass|Meroe]].{{r|HuttonFear|p=59-66}}