Paul Kagame

===Foreign policy===

====Democratic Republic of the Congo====
{{Main|Democratic Republic of the Congo–Rwanda relations}}
[[File:M23 in Goma.PNG|thumb|Anti-government rebels from the [[March 23 Movement|March 23 (M23) Movement]], widely considered to have been supported by Rwanda, during their capture of the provincial capital at [[Goma]] in [[North Kivu]] in November 2012. ]]
The Second Congo War, which began in 1998, was still raging when Kagame assumed the presidency in 2000. [[Namibia]], Angola, Zimbabwe, and [[Chad]] had committed troops to the Congolese government side,{{sfn|BBC News (II)}} while Rwanda, Uganda, and Burundi were supporting rebel groups.{{sfn|Prunier|2009|pp=193–198}} The rebel group Rally for Congolese Democracy (RCD) had split in 1999 into two factions: the [[Rally for Congolese Democracy–Goma|RCD-Goma]], supported by Rwanda, and the [[RCD-Kisangani]], which was allied to Uganda.{{sfn|Prunier|2009|p=221}} Uganda also supported the [[Movement for the Liberation of the Congo]] (MLC), a rebel group from the north.{{sfn|Prunier|2009|p=221}} All these rebel groups were at war with Kabila's government in Kinshasa, but were also increasingly hostile to each other.{{sfn|Prunier|2009|p=221}} Various peace meetings had been held, culminating in the July 1999 [[Lusaka Ceasefire Agreement]] which was signed by Kabila, Kagame and all the other foreign governments.{{sfn|Prunier|2009|pp=224–225}} The rebel groups were not party to the agreement, and fighting continued.{{sfn|Prunier|2009|pp=224–225}} The RPA continued to be heavily involved in the Congo War during 2000, fighting battles against the Ugandan army in Kisangani and against Kabila's army in [[Kasai region|Kasai]] and [[Katanga Province|Katanga]].{{sfn|Prunier|2009|pp=225, 234}}

In January 2001, Kabila was assassinated inside his palace.{{sfn|Sherwell|Long|2001}} His son [[Joseph Kabila|Joseph]] was appointed president and immediately began asserting his authority by dismissing his father's cabinet and senior army commanders,{{sfn|Prunier|2009|pp=258, 263}} assembling a new government, and engaging with the international community.{{sfn|Prunier|2009|p=257}} The new government provided impetus for renewed peace negotiations, and in July 2002 a peace agreement was reached between Rwanda, Congo, and the other major participants, in which all foreign troops would withdraw and RCD-Goma would enter a power-sharing transitional government with Joseph Kabila as interim president until elections could be held.{{sfn|Prunier|2009|p=272}} Kagame's government announced at the end of 2002 that all uniformed Rwandan troops had left Congolese territory, but this was contradicted by a 2003 report by UN panel of experts. According to this report, the Rwandan army contained a dedicated "Congo desk" which used the armed forces for large-scale illegal appropriation of Congolese resources.{{sfn|Armbruster|2003}}{{sfn|Human Rights Watch (I)|2005}}
[[File:The heads of delegations attending the Russia-Africa Summit pose for photographs (2019-10-24).jpg|thumb|Kagame, DRC president [[Félix Tshisekedi]] and other African leaders at the [[Russia–Africa Summit 2019|Russia–Africa Summit]] in Sochi on 24 October 2019]]
Despite the agreement and subsequent ceasefire, relations between Kagame and the Congolese government remained tense.{{sfn|Armbruster|2003}} Kagame blamed the DRC for failing to suppress the [[Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda]] (FDLR), Rwandan Hutu rebels operating in North and South Kivu provinces.{{sfn|Al Jazeera (III)|2007}} Kabila accused Rwanda of using the Hutu as a "pretext for maintaining its control and influence in the area".{{sfn|Voice of America|2009}} There has been [[Kivu conflict|ongoing conflict]] in Congo's eastern provinces since 2004, during which Kagame has backed two major insurgencies. This included a major rebellion from 2005 to 2009, led by Congolese Tutsi [[Laurent Nkunda]], as well as the [[M23 rebellion|a rebellion]] carried out by the [[March 23 Movement]] (M23) under leader [[Bosco Ntaganda]], beginning in 2012.{{sfn|International Crisis Group|2020}}{{sfn|BBC News (XVII)|2014}} A leaked United Nations report in 2012 cited Kagame's defence minister James Kabarebe as being effectively the commander of the M23.{{sfn|BBC News (XIV)|2012}} Relations have improved since 2016, as Kagame held a bilateral meeting with Kabila in Gisenyi.{{sfn|Piel|Tilouine|2016}} When [[Félix Tshisekedi]] was elected DRC president in 2019, Kagame – the AU chairman at the time – unsuccessfully called for an AU investigation into the poll. Despite this, he has developed a close relationship with Tshisekedi since the latter's election, with summits in both Kinshasa and Kigali. As of 2020, Kagame still faces accusations that Rwanda's troops are active within the Kivu provinces. Congolese officials such as [[Walikale Territory|Walikale]] member of parliament [[Juvénal Munubo]], as well as civilians, have reported sighting RDF soldiers in the DRC, but Kagame consistently denies these claims.{{sfn|Gras|2020}}

====Uganda and the East African Community====
{{Further-text|[[Kenya–Rwanda relations]], [[Rwanda–Tanzania relations]]|[[East African Community]]}}[[File:East African Community heads of state.jpg|thumb|Kagame with the other four [[East African Community]] Heads of States in April 2009|alt=Five presidents seated on chairs in an outdoor scene with sunshine and a red carpet: Yoweri Museveni of Uganda, Mwai Kibaki of Kenya, Paul Kagame of Rwanda, Jakaya Kikwete of Tanzania and Pierre Nkurunziza of Burundi]]
Kagame spent most of his childhood and young adult years living in Uganda, and has a personal relationship with President Yoweri Museveni dating back to the late 1970s;{{sfn|Kinzer|2008|p=20}} they fought together in the Ugandan Bush War, and Kagame was appointed head of military intelligence in Museveni's national army following the NRA victory in 1986.{{sfn|Kinzer|2008|pp=50–51}} When the RPF soldiers abandoned the Ugandan army and invaded Rwanda in 1990, Museveni did not explicitly support them, but according to Prunier it is likely that he had prior knowledge of the plan.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|pp=97–98}} Museveni also allowed the RPF safe passage through Ugandan territory to the Virunga mountains after their early defeats in the war,{{sfn|Prunier|1999|pp=114–115}} and revealed in a 1998 heads of state meeting that Uganda had helped the RPF materially during the [[Rwandan Civil War]].{{sfn|Mamdani|2002|p=183}} Following the RPF victory, the two countries enjoyed a close political and trade relationship.{{sfn|Simpson (II)|2000}}

Rwanda and Uganda were allies during the First Congo War against Zaire, with both countries being instrumental in the setting up of the AFDL and committing troops to the war.{{sfn|Reyntjens|2009|p=48}} The two nations joined forces again at the beginning of the Second Congo War, but relations soured in late 1998 as Museveni and Kagame had very different priorities in fighting the war.{{sfn|Prunier|2009|p=220}} In early 1999, the RCD rebel group split into two, with Rwanda and Uganda supporting opposing factions,{{sfn|Prunier|2009|p=220}} and in August the Rwandan and Ugandan armies battled each other with heavy artillery in the Congolese city of Kisangani.{{sfn|Prunier|2009|p=225}} The two sides [[Six Day War (Kisangani)|fought again in Kisangani]] in May and June 2000, causing the deaths of 120 soldiers and around 640 Congolese civilians.{{sfn|Prunier|2009|p=242}} Relations slowly thawed in the 2000s, and by 2011 the two countries enjoyed a close friendship once more.{{sfn|Heuler|2011}} Further conflict between Kagame and Museveni arose in early 2019, as the two countries conflicted over trade and regional politics.{{sfn|Norbrook|Kantai|Smith|2019}} Kagame accused Museveni's government of supporting the FDLR and harassing Rwandan nationals in Uganda, leading Rwanda to set up a blockade of trucks at the border.{{sfn|Mohamed (II)|2019}} Museveni accused Rwanda of sending troops into its territory, including an incident in [[Rukiga district]] in which a Ugandan citizen was killed.{{sfn|Norbrook|Kantai|Smith|2019}} The Rwanda–Uganda border reopened on 31 January 2022.{{sfn|Mutangana |2022}}{{sfn|Reyntjens|2022}}

In 2007, Rwanda joined the East African Community, an intergovernmental organisation for the East Africa region comprising Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, Burundi, and Rwanda. The country's accession required the signing of various agreements with the other members, including a defence intelligence sharing pact, a [[customs union]], and measures to combat drug trafficking.{{sfn|Osike|2007}} The countries of the Community established a [[common market]] in 2011, and plan further integration, including moves toward political federation.{{sfn|East African Community (I)}}{{sfn|Lavelle|2008}} The community has also set up an [[East African Monetary Institute]], which aims to introduce a single currency by 2024.{{sfn|East African Community (II)|2020}}

====France====
{{Main|France–Rwanda relations}}
France maintained close ties with President Habyarimana during his years in power, as part of its ''[[Françafrique]]'' policy.{{sfn|Prunier|1999|p=89}} When the RPF launched the Rwandan Civil War in 1990, Habyarimana was immediately granted assistance from the President of France, [[François Mitterrand]].{{sfn|Prunier|1999|pp=100–101}} France sent 600 paratroopers, who effectively ran the government's response to the invasion and were instrumental in regaining almost all territory the RPF had gained in the first days of the war.{{sfn|Kinzer|2008|p=78}} France maintained this military presence throughout the war, engaging Kagame's RPF forces again in February 1993 during the offensive that doubled RPF territory.{{sfn|Dallaire|2005|p=62}} In the later stages of the 1994 Rwandan genocide, France launched ''Opération Turquoise'', a United Nations mandated mission to create safe humanitarian areas for protection of [[displaced person]]s, [[refugee]]s, and civilians in danger; many Rwandans interpreted it as a mission to protect Hutu from the RPF, including some who had participated in the genocide.{{sfn|Fassbender|2011|p=27}} The French remained hostile to the RPF, and their presence temporarily stalled Kagame's advance in southwestern Rwanda.{{sfn|McGreal|2007}}

France continued to shun the new RPF government following the end of the genocide and the withdrawal of ''Opération Turquoise''.{{sfn|French|1994}} Diplomatic relations were finally reestablished in January 1995, but remained tense as Rwanda accused France of aiding the ''genocidaires'', while France defended its interventions.{{sfn|Smith|1995}}{{sfn|Hranjski|1999}}{{sfn|Australian Associated Press|2004}} In 2006, French judge Jean-Louis Bruguière released a report on the assassination of President Habyarimana which concluded that Kagame had ordered the shooting of the plane. Bruguière subsequently issued arrest warrants for nine of Kagame's close aides.{{sfn|BBC News (XI)|2006}} Kagame denied the charges and immediately broke off diplomatic relations with France.{{sfn|BBC News (XII)|2006}} Relations began to thaw in 2008,{{sfn|Kwibuka|2008}} and diplomacy was resumed in late 2009.{{sfn|Reuters (II)|2009}} In 2010, [[Nicolas Sarkozy]] became the first French president to visit Rwanda since the genocide, admitting for the first time that France made "grave errors of judgment".{{sfn|Sundaram|2010}} Kagame reciprocated with an official visit to Paris in 2011.{{sfn|BBC News (XIII)|2011}}

====United States, United Kingdom and the Commonwealth====
{{Further-text|[[Bangladesh–Rwanda relations|Bangladesh–Rwanda]], [[India–Rwanda relations|India–Rwanda]], [[Rwanda–South Africa relations|Rwanda–South Africa]], [[Rwanda–United Kingdom relations|Rwanda–United Kingdom]]|[[Rwanda–United States relations]]}}[[File:Paul Kagame with Obamas Cropped.jpg|thumb|Paul Kagame with United States President [[Barack Obama]] and First Lady [[Michelle Obama]] in September 2009|alt=Michelle Obama, Paul Kagame and Barack Obama, standing and smiling in front of a curtain]]
[[File:The Prime Minister, Shri Narendra Modi meeting the President of Rwanda, Mr. Paul Kagame, on the sidelines of the International Solar Alliance (ISA) Summit, in New Delhi on March 11, 2018.jpg|thumb|Kagame with Indian Prime Minister [[Narendra Modi]] in 2018]]
[[File:U.S.- Africa Leaders’ Summit Dinner White House, 14 December 2022 (52565663179).jpg|thumb|Kagame with US President [[Joe Biden]] at the [[United States–Africa Leaders Summit 2022|United States–Africa Leaders Summit]] in 2022]]
Since the end of the Rwandan genocide in 1994, Rwanda has enjoyed a close relationship with the English speaking world, in particular the United States (US) and United Kingdom (UK). The two countries have been highly supportive of the RPF programme of stabilisation and rebuilding, with the UK donating large sums each year in [[budget support]],{{sfn|Smith|2012}} and the US providing military aid{{sfn|Smith|2012}} as well as supporting development projects.{{sfn|ForeignAssistance.gov|2013}} As president, Kagame has been critical of the West's lack of response to the genocide, and the UK and US have responded by admitting guilt over the issue: Bill Clinton, who was President of the United States during the genocide, has described his failure to act against the killings as a "personal failure".{{sfn|Smith|2012}} During the 2000s, Clinton and UK prime minister [[Tony Blair]] praised the country's progress under Kagame, citing it as a model recipient for international development funds, and Clinton referred to Kagame as "one of the greatest leaders of our time".{{sfn|Smith|2012}} Both Clinton and Blair have maintained support for the country beyond the end of their terms of office, Clinton via the [[Clinton Global Initiative]] and Blair through his role as an unpaid advisor to the Rwandan government.{{sfn|Wintour|2008}}

As part of his policy of maintaining close relations with English speaking countries, Kagame sought membership of the Commonwealth of Nations, which was granted in 2009.{{sfn|Pflanz|2009}} Rwanda was only the second country, after [[Mozambique]], to join the Commonwealth having never had colonial links to the [[British Empire]].{{sfn|Pflanz|2009}} Kagame attended the subsequent [[Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting]] in Perth, Australia, addressing the Business Forum.{{sfn|Office of the President (II)|2011}} Rwanda also successfully applied for a rotating seat on the [[United Nations Security Council]] in 2012, taking over the presidency of that organisation in April 2013.{{sfn|Munyaneza|2013}}

Kagame's relations with the US and UK came under strain in the early 2010s, following allegations that Rwanda is supporting the M23 rebel movement in Eastern Congo.{{sfn|Smith|2012}} The UK suspended its budgetary aid programme in 2012, freezing a [[Pound Sterling|£]]21&nbsp;million donation.{{sfn|BBC News (XVI)|2012}} Other European nations such as Germany also suspended general budgetary support from 2008 onwards. Payments by these countries were gradually restored from 2013, but took the form of sector budgetary support and support for specific programmes.{{sfn|DEval|2008}} The US also froze some of its military aid programme for Rwanda in 2012, although it stopped short of suspending aid altogether.{{sfn|McGreal|2012}} By 2020, the US remained supportive of Kagame's government and was Rwanda's largest bilateral donor.{{sfn|Department of State (V)|2020}}{{sfn|USAID|2020}}

====China and moves towards self-sufficiency====
{{Main|China–Rwanda relations}}
China has been investing in Rwandan infrastructure since 1971, with early projects including hospitals in [[Kibungo]] and [[Masaka (Rwanda)|Masaka]].{{sfn|Mizero|2012|p=1}} Under Kagame's presidency, trade between the two countries has grown rapidly. The volume of trade increased five-fold between 2005 and 2009,{{sfn|Musoni|2011}} and it doubled again in the following three years, being worth US$160&nbsp;million in 2012.{{sfn|Gasore|2013}} Projects completed include the renovation of the Kigali road network, funded using a Chinese government loan and undertaken by [[Road and Bridge Construction|China Road and Bridge Corporation]];{{sfn|China Road and Bridge Corporation|2007}} the [[Kigali City Tower]], which was built by [[China Civil Engineering Construction]];{{sfn|Asiimwe|2010}} and a pay television service operated by [[Star Media]].{{sfn|Butera|2011}}

Kagame has been vocal in his praise of China and its model for relations with Africa, saying in a 2009 interview that "the Chinese bring what Africa needs: investment and money for governments and companies".{{sfn|BBC News (XV)|2009}} This is in contrast to Western countries, whom Kagame accuses of focussing too heavily on giving aid to the continent rather than building a trading relationship; he also believes that they keep African products out of the world marketplace by the use of high [[tariff]]s.{{sfn|BBC News (XV)|2009}} China does not openly involve itself in the domestic affairs of the countries with which it trades,{{sfn|BBC News (XV)|2009}} hence has not followed the West in criticising Kagame's alleged involvement in the war in the Congo.

Kagame's ultimate goal in international relations is to shift Rwanda from a country dependent on donor aid and loans towards self-sufficiency, trading with other countries on an equal footing. In a 2009 article, Kagame wrote that "the primary purpose of aid should ultimately be to work itself out", and should therefore focus on self-sufficiency and building private sector development.{{sfn|Kagame|2009}} Kagame cited an example of donor countries providing free fertilisers to farmers; he believes this to be wrong because it undercuts local fertiliser businesses, preventing them from growing and becoming competitive.{{sfn|Kagame|2009}} In 2012, Kagame launched the [[Agaciro Development Fund]], following proposals made at a national dialogue session in 2011.{{sfn|Agaciro Development Fund (I)|p=2}} Agaciro is a solidarity fund whose goal is to provide development finance sourced within Rwanda, supplementing aid already received from overseas.{{sfn|Office of the President (III)|2012}} The fund invites contributions from Rwandan citizens, within the country and in the diaspora, as well as private companies and "friends of Rwanda".{{sfn|Agaciro Development Fund (I)|p=2}} The fund will allocate its funds based on consultations with the populace,{{sfn|Agaciro Development Fund (I)|p=2}} as well as financing projects contributing to the Vision 2020 programme.{{sfn|Agaciro Development Fund (II)}}