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Do not fill this in! ===Architecture and arts=== [[File:Catedral Gótica de León.jpg|thumb|alt=A large stone church with two large and several smaller towers and a huge rose window on the façade|[[León Cathedral]], an example of [[Rayonnant|Rayonnant Gothic]], completed in three phases during the 13th–15th centuries]] [[Encastellation]] continued with stone fortresses built in regions where central authority was weak.{{sfn|Jordan|2002|p=13}} Many of them were [[motte-and-bailey castle|motte-and-bailey]] structures, but {{lang|de|[[Bergfriede]]}}, or tower castles, were preferred in Central Europe, and the competing urban families built tall towers in Italian cities and towns.{{refn|group=note|Reportedly, the tall {{lang|it|torri}} ('towers') made some Italian towns look like brick and stone forests. The small Tuscan town of [[San Gimignano]] is still a good example although only few of the family towers have survived.{{sfn|Nicolle|1996|p=142}}}}{{sfn|Nicolle|1996|pp=138–147}} The great pilgrimages entailed the construction of large churches along pilgrimage roads.{{refn|group=note|The [[Basilica of Saint-Sernin, Toulouse|Basilica of Saint-Sernin]] in the city of [[Toulouse]] is one of the earliest [[pilgrimage church]]es on the {{lang|es|[[Camino de Santiago]]}} ('Way of Saint James').{{sfn|Benton|2002|pp=61–62}}}} This led to the development of stone architecture that bears some resemblance to classical Roman building design, hence known as [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]]. Romanesque buildings have massive stone walls, decorated with sculpture in [[relief]], and are typically covered by [[Barrel vault|barrel]], [[Groin vault|groin]] or [[rib vault]]s,{{sfn|Adams|2011|pp=186–191}} but Romanesque has various regional variants.{{sfn|Benton|2002|pp=82, 93, 109}} Traditional Byzantine religious architecture remained dominant in the Balkans, although some Serbian churches display Romanesque influence.{{refn|group=note|The Church of the Virgin in the [[Studenica Monastery]] well illustrates the blending of Byzantine and Romanesque traditions in Serbia. Its west portal with its [[Tympanum (architecture)|tympanum]] was completed by southern Italian builders in the late {{nowrap|12th century}}{{sfn|Curta|2019|pp=639–640}}}}{{sfn|Curta|2019|pp=638–644}} Romanesque art, especially metalwork, was at its most sophisticated in [[Mosan art]], in which distinct artistic personalities including [[Nicholas of Verdun]] (d. 1205) become apparent, and an almost [[Ancient Greek art|classical style]] is seen in works such as a [[Baptismal font at St Bartholomew's Church, Liège|font at Liège]].{{sfn|Lasko|1972|pp=240–250}} Few wall-paintings survive although references to images abound in written sources. The employment of itinerant artists, and the use of [[Sketch (drawing)|sketches]] made of [[mural]]s facilitated the transmission of artistic motifs over large territory.{{refn|group=note|Artistic motifs could be disseminated over huge areas through the copying and recopying of sketches, as it is demonstrated by the similarity between wall-paintings depicting the life of the Virgin in the [[St Mark's Basilica]] in Venice and in the [[Mirozhsky Monastery|Cathedral of Christ's Transfiguration]] in the Rus' city of [[Pskov]].{{sfn|Dodwell|1993|p=7}}}} [[Embroidery]] flourished as the churches and castles were decorated by [[tapestry|tapestries]], and clerical vestments were adorned by [[needlework]] images.{{sfn|Dodwell|1993|pp=7–44}} Structural innovations introduced the development of the [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] style from Romanesque. These included [[Ogive|pointed arches]] for the reduction of lateral thrust, [[flying buttress]]es to reinforce the walls, and rib vaults to minimise their [[Statics|static]] importance. The new solutions allowed the extensive use of large [[stained glass]] windows.{{sfn|Benton|2002|p=150}} The Gothic architecture emerged as a combination of all these during the reconstruction of the [[Basilica of Saint-Denis|Saint-Denis Abbey]] near Paris under Abbot [[Suger]] (d. 1151).{{sfn|Adams|2011|pp=198–199}}{{sfn|Benton|2002|p=152}} The new style quickly spread and dominated religious architecture in much of Catholic Europe till the end of the Middle Ages.{{refn|group=note|Prominent examples include the cathedrals [[Chartres Cathedral|at Chartres]] and [[Reims Cathedral|Reims]], and the [[Sainte-Chapelle]] in France, [[Salisbury Cathedral]] in England, [[Cologne Cathedral]] in Germany, [[Milan Cathedral]] in Italy, and the [[Saint Vitus Cathedral]] in Prague.{{sfn|Adams|2011|pp=205–219}}{{sfn|Benton|2002|pp=201–240}}}}{{sfn|Adams|2011|pp=199–219}} The practice of manuscript illumination gradually passed from monasteries to lay workshops, and the [[book of hours]] developed as a form of devotional book for lay-people.{{sfn|Benton|2002|pp=250–258}} Metalwork continued to be the most prestigious form of art, with [[Limoges enamel]] a popular and relatively affordable option.{{sfn|Benton|2002|pp=245–247}} In Italy the innovations of [[Cimabue]] and [[Duccio]], followed by the [[Trecento]] master [[Giotto]] (d. 1337), greatly increased the sophistication and status of [[panel painting]] and [[fresco]].{{sfn|Benton|2002|pp=264–278}} Increasing prosperity during the {{nowrap|12th century}} resulted in greater production of secular art; many [[ivory carving|carved ivory]] objects such as gaming pieces, combs, and small religious figures have survived.{{sfn|Benton|2002|pp=248–250}} {{clear|left}} Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. 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