Chinese folk religion

====Confucianism, Taoism and orders of ritual masters====
{{Main|Confucianism|Taoism|Chinese ritual mastery traditions}}
[[File:Fushou (Fortune and Longevity) Taoist Temple at Tianchi (Heavenly Lake)  in Fukang, Changji, Xinjiang.jpg|thumb|Temple of Fortune and Longevity, at the [[Heavenly Lake of Tianshan]] in [[Fukang]], [[Changji Hui Autonomous Prefecture|Changji]], [[Xinjiang]]. It is an example of Taoist temple which hosts various chapels dedicated to popular gods.{{refn|group=note|The main axis of the Taoist Temple of Fortune and Longevity ({{lang-zh|福壽觀}} ''Fúshòuguān'') has a Temple of the Three Patrons ({{lang-zh|三皇殿}} ''Sānhuángdiàn'') and a Temple of the Three Purities ({{lang-zh|三清殿}} ''Sānqīngdiàn'', the orthodox gods of Taoist theology). Side chapels include a Temple of the God of Wealth ({{lang-zh|財神殿}} ''Cáishéndiàn''), a Temple of the Lady ({{lang-zh|娘娘殿}} ''Niángniángdiàn''), a Temple of the Eight Immortals ({{lang-zh|八仙殿}} ''Bāxiāndiàn''), and a Temple of the (God of) Thriving Culture ({{lang-zh|文昌殿}} ''Wénchāngdiàn''). The Fushou Temple belongs to the [[Taoist Church]] and was built in 2005 on the site of a former Buddhist temple, the Iron Tiles Temple, which stood there until it was destituted and destroyed in 1950. Part of the roof tiles of the new temples are from the ruins of the former temple excavated in 2002.}}]]
[[File:靈安壇大法師.JPG|thumb|Folk ritual masters conducting a ceremony.]]
[[File:Jiangyin wenmiao dachengdian.jpg|thumb|The Temple of the God of Culture ({{lang-zh|文廟}} ''wénmiào'') of [[Jiangyin]], [[Wuxi]], [[Jiangsu]]. In this temple the ''Wéndì'' ({{lang-zh|文帝}}, "God of Culture") enshrined is [[Confucius]].]]

Confucianism and Taoism—which are formalised, ritual, doctrinal or philosophical traditions—can be considered both as embedded within the larger category of Chinese religion, or as separate religions. In fact, one can practise certain folk cults and espouse the tenets of Confucianism as a philosophical framework, Confucian theology instructing to uphold the moral order through the worship of gods and ancestors<ref>Littlejohn, 2010. pp. 35–37</ref> that is the way of connecting to the [[Tian]] and awakening to its harmony (''[[li (Confucian)|li]]'', "[[ṛta|rite]]").<ref>Tay, 2010. p. 100</ref>

Folk temples and ancestral shrines on special occasions may choose Confucian liturgy (that is called {{lang-zh|儒}} ''rú'', or sometimes {{lang-zh|正統}} ''zhèngtǒng'', meaning "[[orthopraxy|orthoprax]]" ritual style) led by Confucian "sages of rites" ({{lang-zh|禮生}} ''lǐshēng'') who in many cases are the elders of a local community. Confucian liturgies are alternated with Taoist liturgies and popular ritual styles.{{sfnb|Clart|2003|pp=3-5}}

There are many organised groups of the folk religion that adopt Confucian liturgy and identity, for example the [[Way of the Gods according to the Confucian Tradition]] or phoenix churches (Luanism), or the [[Confucian churches]], schools and fellowships such as the ''Yīdān xuétáng'' ({{lang-zh|一耽學堂}}) of [[Beijing]],<ref>Sébastien Billioud. ''Confucian Revival and the Emergence of "Jiaohua Organizations": A Case Study of the Yidan Xuetang''. On: ''Modern China'', vol. 37, no. 3, 2011, pp. 286–314. DOI: 10.1177/0097700411398574</ref> the ''Mèngmǔtáng'' ({{lang-zh|孟母堂}}) of [[Shanghai]],<ref name="Fan, Chen. 2015. p. 29">Fan, Chen. 2015. p. 29</ref> the Confucian Fellowship ({{lang-zh|儒教道壇}} ''Rújiào Dàotán'') in northern Fujian, and ancestral temples of the Kong (Confucius) lineage operating as well as Confucian-teaching churches.<ref name="Fan, Chen. 2015. p. 29"/> In November 2015 a national [[Kongshenghui|Church of Confucius]] was established with the contribution of many Confucian leaders.

Scholar and Taoist priest [[Kristofer Schipper]] defines Taoism as a "liturgical framework" for the development of local religion.<ref name="Wu2014">Nengchang Wu. ''[https://www.academia.edu/6919287/2014_Religion_and_Society._A_Summary_of_French_Studies_on_Chinese_Religion Religion and Society. A Summary of French Studies on Chinese Religion] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170827012653/http://www.academia.edu/6919287/2014_Religion_and_Society._A_Summary_of_French_Studies_on_Chinese_Religion |date=27 August 2017 }}''. On: ''Review of Religion and Chinese Society'' 1 (2014), 104–127. pp. 105–106</ref> Some [[Taoist schools|currents]] of Taoism are deeply interwoven with the Chinese folk religion, especially the [[Zhengyi Taoism|Zhengyi]] school, developing aspects of local cults within their doctrines;<ref name="Wu2014"/> however Taoists always highlight the distinction between their traditions and those which are not Taoist. Priests of Taoism are called ''daoshi'' ({{lang-zh|道士}}), literally meaning "masters of the [[Tao]]", otherwise commonly translated as the "Taoists", as common followers and folk believers who are not part of Taoist orders are not identified as such.

Taoists of the Zhengyi school, who are called ''sǎnjū dàoshi'' ({{lang-zh|散居道士}}) or ''huǒjū dàoshi'' ({{lang-zh|火居道士}}), respectively meaning "scattered daoshi" and "daoshi living at home (hearth)", because they can get married and perform the profession of priests as a part-time occupation, may perform rituals of offering (''jiao''), thanks-giving, propitiation, exorcism and rites of passage for local communities' temples and private homes.<ref name="Davis-Daoists">Edward L. Davis. ''Encyclopedia of Contemporary Chinese Culture''. ¶ [http://contemporary_chinese_culture.academic.ru/179/Daoist_priests Daoist priests] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140303164605/http://contemporary_chinese_culture.academic.ru/179/Daoist_priests |date=3 March 2014 }}, [http://contemporary_chinese_culture.academic.ru/808/vernacular_priests_(Daoist_Buddhist) vernacular priests] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140303164603/http://contemporary_chinese_culture.academic.ru/808/vernacular_priests_(Daoist_Buddhist) |date=3 March 2014 }}</ref> Local gods of local cultures are often incorporated into their altars.<ref name="Davis-Daoists"/> The Zhengyi Taoists are trained by other priests of the same sect, and historically received formal ordination by the [[Celestial Master]],<ref name="Pas, 2014. p. 259">Pas, 2014. p. 259</ref> although the 63rd Celestial Master Zhang Enpu fled to Taiwan in the 1940s during the [[Chinese Civil War]].

[[Chinese ritual mastery traditions|Lineages of ritual masters]] ({{lang-zh|法師}} ''fashi''), also referred to as practitioners of "Faism", also called "Folk Taoism" or (in southeast China) "Red Taoism", operate within the Chinese folk religion but outside any institution of official Taoism.<ref name="Pas, 2014. p. 259"/> The ritual masters, who have the same role of the ''sanju daoshi'' within the fabric of society, are not considered Taoist priests by the ''daoshi'' of Taoism who trace their lineage to the Celestial Masters and by Taoists officially registered with the state Taoist Church. ''Fashi'' are defined as of "[[kataphatic]]" (filling) character in opposition to professional Taoists who are "[[kenotic]]" (of emptying, or [[apophatic theology|apophatic]], character).<ref>Sarah Coakley. ''Religion and the Body''. Book 8 of ''Cambridge Studies in Religious Traditions''. Cambridge University Press, 2000. {{ISBN|0521783860}}. p. 246</ref>