Augustus

=== Revenue reforms ===
[[File:AugustusCoinPudukottaiHoardIndia.jpg|thumb|left|Coin of Augustus found at the [[Pudukottai]] hoard, from an [[ancient Tamil country]], [[Pandyan Kingdom]] of present-day [[Tamil Nadu]] in India, a testimony to [[Indo-Roman trade]]. [[British Museum]]. Caption: AVGVSTVS DIVI F[ILIVS]. (The vertical slice, not part of the original design, was likely an old test cut to make sure the coin was solid rather than a [[fourrée]].)]]

Augustus's public [[revenue]] reforms had a great impact on the subsequent success of the Empire. Augustus brought a far greater portion of the Empire's expanded land base under consistent, direct taxation from Rome, instead of exacting varying, intermittent, and somewhat arbitrary tributes from each local province as Augustus's predecessors had done. This reform greatly increased Rome's net revenue from its territorial acquisitions, stabilized its flow, and regularized the financial relationship between Rome and the provinces, rather than provoking fresh resentments with each new arbitrary exaction of tribute.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|pages=83–84}}
[[File:HymiariteKingdomAugustusImitation1stCenturyCE.jpg|thumb|right|1st century coin of the [[Himyarite]] Kingdom, southern coast of the [[Arabian peninsula]]. This is also an imitation of a coin of Augustus.]]
The measures of taxation in the reign of Augustus were determined by population census, with fixed quotas for each province. Citizens of Rome and Italy paid indirect taxes, while direct taxes were exacted from the provinces. Indirect taxes included a 4% tax on the price of slaves, a 1% tax on goods sold at auction, and a 5% tax on the inheritance of estates valued at over 100,000 sesterces by persons other than the [[next of kin]].{{Sfn|Bunson|1994|page=404}}

An equally important reform was the abolition of private [[tax farming]], which was replaced by salaried civil service tax collectors. Private contractors who collected taxes for the State were the norm in the Republican era. Some of them were powerful enough to influence the number of votes for men running for offices in Rome. These tax farmers called [[publican]]s were infamous for their depredations, great private wealth, and the right to tax local areas.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|pages=83–84}}

The use of Egypt's immense land rents to finance the Empire's operations resulted from Augustus's conquest of Egypt and the shift to a Roman form of government.{{Sfn|Bunson|1994|page=144}} As it was effectively considered Augustus's private property rather than a province of the Empire, it became part of each succeeding emperor's patrimonium.{{Sfn|Bunson|1994|pages=144–145}}

Instead of a legate or proconsul, Augustus installed a prefect from the equestrian class to administer Egypt and maintain its lucrative seaports; this position became the highest political achievement for any equestrian besides becoming [[Praetorian prefect|Prefect of the Praetorian Guard]].{{Sfn|Bunson|1994|page=145}} The highly productive agricultural land of Egypt yielded enormous revenues that were available to Augustus and his successors to pay for public works and military expeditions.{{Sfn|Bunson|1994|page=144}}