Science

== Scientific community ==
The [[scientific community]] is a network of interacting scientists who conducts scientific research. The community consists of smaller groups working in scientific fields. By having [[peer review]], through discussion and debate within journals and conferences, scientists maintain the quality of research methodology and objectivity when interpreting results.<ref name="SCMet">{{cite journal |last1=Kornfeld |first1=W |last2=Hewitt |first2=CE |year=1981 |title=The Scientific Community Metaphor |url=http://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721.1/5693/AIM-641.pdf?sequence=2 |journal= IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics|volume=  11|issue=1 |pages=24–33 |doi=10.1109/TSMC.1981.4308575 |hdl-access=free |hdl=1721.1/5693 |s2cid=1322857 |access-date=May 26, 2022 |archive-date=April 8, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160408100757/http://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721.1/5693/AIM-641.pdf?sequence=2 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Scientists ===
[[File:Marie Curie c1920.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|[[Marie Curie]] was the first person to be awarded two Nobel Prizes: [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Physics]] in 1903 and [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Chemistry]] in 1911<ref name="psb113" />|alt=Portrait of a middle-aged woman]]
Scientists are individuals who conduct scientific research to advance knowledge in an area of interest.<ref name="eowilsonfoundation">{{cite web | url = https://eowilsonfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/the-big-read-eusocial-climbers.pdf | title = Eusocial climbers | publisher = E.O. Wilson Foundation | access-date = September 3, 2018 | quote = But he's not a scientist, he's never done scientific research. My definition of a scientist is that you can complete the following sentence: 'he or she has shown that...'," Wilson says. | archive-date = April 27, 2019 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190427085753/https://eowilsonfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/the-big-read-eusocial-climbers.pdf | url-status = live }}</ref><ref name="researchcouncil">{{cite web | url = https://sciencecouncil.org/about-science/our-definition-of-a-scientist/ | title = Our definition of a scientist | publisher = Science Council | access-date = September 7, 2018 | quote = A scientist is someone who systematically gathers and uses research and evidence, making a hypothesis and testing it, to gain and share understanding and knowledge. | archive-date = August 23, 2019 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190823135636/https://sciencecouncil.org/about-science/our-definition-of-a-scientist/ | url-status = live }}</ref> In modern times, many professional scientists are trained in an academic setting and upon completion, attain an [[academic degree]], with the highest degree being a doctorate such as a Doctor of Philosophy or PhD.<ref name="Cyranoski2011">{{cite journal | last1 = Cyranoski | first1 = David | last2 = Gilbert | first2 = Natasha | last3 = Ledford | first3 = Heidi | last4 = Nayar | first4 = Anjali | author4-link = Anjali Nayar | last5 = Yahia | first5 = Mohammed | year = 2011 | title = Education: The PhD factory | journal = Nature | volume = 472 | issue = 7343 | pages = 276–79 | doi = 10.1038/472276a | pmid = 21512548 | bibcode = 2011Natur.472..276C | doi-access = free }}</ref> Many scientists pursue careers in various [[Sector (economic)|sectors of the economy]] such as [[Academy|academia]], [[Private sector|industry]], [[Administration (government)|government]], and nonprofit organizations.<ref name="Kwok2017">{{cite journal | last1 = Kwok | first1 = Roberta | title = Flexible working: Science in the gig economy | journal = Nature | volume = 550 | pages = 419–21 | doi = 10.1038/nj7677-549a| year = 2017 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Editorial2017a">{{cite journal | year = 2007 | title = Many junior scientists need to take a hard look at their job prospects | journal = Nature | editor = Editorial | volume = 550 | pages = 549–552 | doi = 10.1038/nj7677-549a | last1 = Woolston | first1 = Chris | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Woolston2017">{{cite journal | last1 = Lee | first1 = Adrian | last2 = Dennis | first2 = Carina | last3 = Campbell | first3 = Phillip | year = 2007 | title = Graduate survey: A love–hurt relationship | journal = Nature | volume = 550 | issue = 7677 | pages = 549–52 | doi = 10.1038/nj7677-549a| doi-access = free }}</ref>

Scientists exhibit a strong curiosity about reality and a desire to apply scientific knowledge for the benefit of health, nations, the environment, or industries. Other motivations include recognition by their peers and prestige. In modern times, many scientists have [[Terminal degree|advanced degrees]] in an area of science and pursue careers in various sectors of the economy such as [[Academy|academia]], [[Private industry|industry]], [[Government scientist|government]], and nonprofit environments.<ref name="Cyranoski20112">{{cite journal |last1=Cyranoski |first1=David |last2=Gilbert |first2=Natasha |last3=Ledford |first3=Heidi |last4=Nayar |first4=Anjali |last5=Yahia |first5=Mohammed |year=2011 |title=Education: The PhD factory |journal=Nature |volume=472 |issue=7343 |pages=276–279 |bibcode=2011Natur.472..276C |doi=10.1038/472276a |pmid=21512548 |doi-access=free}}</ref> <ref name="Kwok20172">{{cite journal |last1=Kwok |first1=Roberta |year=2017 |title=Flexible working: Science in the gig economy |journal=Nature |volume=550 |pages=419–421 |doi=10.1038/nj7677-549a |doi-access=free}}</ref>''<ref name="Woolston20172">{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Adrian |last2=Dennis |first2=Carina |last3=Campbell |first3=Phillip |year=2007 |title=Graduate survey: A love–hurt relationship |journal=Nature |volume=550 |issue=7677 |pages=549–552 |doi=10.1038/nj7677-549a |doi-access=free}}</ref>''

Science has historically been a male-dominated field, with notable exceptions. [[Women in science]] faced considerable discrimination in science, much as they did in other areas of male-dominated societies. For example, women were frequently being passed over for job opportunities and denied credit for their work.<ref name="Whaley">{{cite book|last=Whaley|first=Leigh Ann|title=Women's History as Scientists|location=Santa Barbara, California|publisher=ABC-CLIO, INC.|year=2003}}</ref> The achievements of women in science have been attributed to the defiance of their traditional role as laborers within the [[Private sphere|domestic sphere]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Spanier |first=Bonnie |title=Im/partial Science: Gender Identity in Molecular Biology |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-253-20968-9 |chapter=From Molecules to Brains, Normal Science Supports Sexist Beliefs about Difference}}</ref>

=== Learned societies ===
[[File:200_y_Anniversary_of_Berlin_Academy_1900.jpg|thumb|250x250px|Picture of scientists in 200th anniversary of the [[Prussian Academy of Sciences]], 1900|left]]
[[Learned society|Learned societies]] for the communication and promotion of scientific thought and experimentation have existed since the Renaissance.<ref>{{cite web | last= Parrott | first= Jim | date= August 9, 2007 | url= http://www.scholarly-societies.org/1599andearlier.html | title=Chronicle for Societies Founded from 1323 to 1599 | publisher= Scholarly Societies Project | access-date= September 11, 2007 | url-status=live | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140106185404/http://www.scholarly-societies.org/1599andearlier.html | archive-date= January 6, 2014 }}</ref> Many scientists belong to a learned society that promotes their respective scientific discipline, [[profession]], or group of related disciplines.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.esac.ca/about/what-is-a-learned-society/|title= The Environmental Studies Association of Canada – What is a Learned Society?|access-date= May 10, 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130529163615/http://www.esac.ca/about/what-is-a-learned-society/|archive-date= May 29, 2013}}</ref> Membership may either be open to all, require possession of scientific credentials, or conferred by election.<ref name="auto">{{cite web|url= http://www.britishcouncil.org/science-uk-organisations-learned-societies.htm|title= Learned societies & academies|access-date= May 10, 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140603140851/http://www.britishcouncil.org/science-uk-organisations-learned-societies.htm|archive-date= June 3, 2014}}</ref> Most scientific societies are non-profit organizations,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-06-24 |title=Learned Societies, the key to realising an open access future? |url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/06/24/learned-societies-the-key-to-realising-an-open-access-future/ |access-date=2023-01-22 |website=Impact of Social Sciences|publisher=London School of Economics}}</ref> and many are [[professional association]]s. Their activities typically include holding regular [[academic conference|conferences]] for the presentation and discussion of new research results and publishing or sponsoring [[academic journal]]s in their discipline. Some societies act as [[professional bodies]], regulating the activities of their members in the public interest, or the collective interest of the membership.

The professionalization of science, begun in the 19th century, was partly enabled by the creation of national distinguished [[academy of sciences|academies of sciences]] such as the Italian {{lang|it|[[Accademia dei Lincei]]}} in 1603,<ref>{{cite web | year=2006 | url= http://positivamente.lincei.it/ | title= Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei | language=it | access-date= September 11, 2007 | url-status=live | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100228005402/http://positivamente.lincei.it/ | archive-date= February 28, 2010 }}</ref> the British [[Royal Society]] in 1660,<ref name="pw">{{cite web |date=July 7, 2004 |title=Prince of Wales opens Royal Society's refurbished building |url=http://royalsociety.org/News.aspx?id=973&terms=prince+of+wales |access-date=December 7, 2009 |publisher=The Royal Society |archive-date=April 9, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150409010143/https://royalsociety.org/News.aspx?id=973&terms=prince+of+wales |url-status=live }}</ref> the [[French Academy of Sciences]] in 1666,<ref>{{cite web | first= G.G. | last= Meynell | url= http://www.haven.u-net.com/6text_7B2.htm#Appendix%202 | title= The French Academy of Sciences, 1666–91: A reassessment of the French Académie royale des sciences under Colbert (1666–83) and Louvois (1683–91) | access-date= October 13, 2011 | url-status=dead | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120118174108/http://www.haven.u-net.com/6text_7B2.htm#Appendix%202 | archive-date= January 18, 2012 }}</ref> the American [[National Academy of Sciences]] in 1863,<ref>{{cite web |author=ITS |title=Founding of the National Academy of Sciences |url=http://www7.nationalacademies.org/archives/nasfounding.html |access-date=March 12, 2012 |publisher=.nationalacademies.org |archive-date=February 3, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130203154802/http://www7.nationalacademies.org/archives/nasfounding.html |url-status=live }}</ref> the German [[Kaiser Wilhelm Society]] in 1911,<ref>{{Cite web |title=The founding of the Kaiser Wilhelm Society (1911) |url=https://www.mpg.de/946619/5_event2-1911 |access-date=May 30, 2022 |publisher=Max-Planck-Gesellschaft |language=en |archive-date=March 2, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220302052520/https://www.mpg.de/946619/5_event2-1911 |url-status=live }}</ref> and the [[Chinese Academy of Sciences]] in 1949.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Introduction |url=https://english.cas.cn/about_us/introduction/201501/t20150114_135284.shtml |access-date=May 31, 2022 |website=Chinese Academy of Sciences |archive-date=March 31, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331215338/https://english.cas.cn/about_us/introduction/201501/t20150114_135284.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> International scientific organizations, such as the [[International Science Council]], are devoted to [[international cooperation]] for science advancement.<ref>{{Cite web |date=July 5, 2018 |title=Two main Science Councils merge to address complex global challenges |url=https://en.unesco.org/news/two-main-science-councils-merge-address-complex-global-challenges |access-date=October 21, 2018 |publisher=UNESCO |language=en |archive-date=July 12, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210712044005/https://en.unesco.org/news/two-main-science-councils-merge-address-complex-global-challenges |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Awards ===
[[Lists of science and technology awards|Science award]]s are usually given to individuals or organizations that have made significant contributions to a discipline. They are often given by prestigious institutions, thus it is considered a great honor for a scientist receiving them. Since the early Renaissance, scientists are often awarded medals, money, and titles. The Nobel Prize, a widely regarded prestigious award, is awarded annually to those who have achieved scientific advances in the fields of medicine, [[physics]], and [[chemistry]].<ref name="Stockton2014">{{cite news |last=Stockton |first=Nick |date=October 7, 2014 |title=How did the Nobel Prize become the biggest award on Earth? |newspaper=Wired |url=https://www.wired.com/2014/10/whats-nobel-prize-become-biggest-award-planet |url-status=live |access-date=September 3, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190619044702/https://www.wired.com/2014/10/whats-nobel-prize-become-biggest-award-planet/ |archive-date=June 19, 2019}}</ref>