Jerusalem

===Modern era===
====Ottoman period (16th–19th centuries)====
{{further|Expansion of Jerusalem in the 19th century}}
In 1517, Jerusalem and its environs fell to the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turks]], who generally remained in control until 1917.<ref name=century1/> Jerusalem enjoyed a prosperous period of renewal and peace under [[Suleiman the Magnificent]]—including the rebuilding of magnificent walls around the [[Old City of Jerusalem|Old City]]. Throughout much of Ottoman rule, Jerusalem remained a provincial, if religiously important centre, and did not straddle the main trade route between [[Damascus]] and [[Cairo]].<ref>Amnon Cohen. "Economic Life in Ottoman Jerusalem"; Cambridge University Press, 1989</ref> The English reference book ''Modern history or the present state of all nations'', written in 1744, stated that "Jerusalem is still reckoned the capital city of Palestine, though much fallen from its ancient grandeaur".<ref>{{cite book |title=Modern history or the present state of all nations |last=Salmon |first=Thomas |author-link=Thomas Salmon (historian) |page=461 |year=1744 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f7I-AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA534 |access-date=28 January 2011 |archive-date=18 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230218083742/https://books.google.com/books?id=f7I-AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA534 |url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:1283 Descriptio Terrae Sanctae.jpg|thumb|upright|A 1455 painting of the Holy Land. Jerusalem is viewed from the west. The octagonal [[Dome of the Rock]] stands left of the [[Al-Aqsa Mosque]], shown as a church, and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre stands on the left side of the picture.]]

The Ottomans brought many innovations: modern postal systems run by the various consulates and regular stagecoach and carriage services were among the first signs of modernization in the city.<ref name=hujiOttoman>{{cite web |url=http://jeru.huji.ac.il/eh1.htm |title=The Ottoman Period (1517–1917 CE) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091231040026/http://jeru.huji.ac.il/eh1.htm |archive-date=31 December 2009 |publisher=[[Hebrew University]] |year=2002 |access-date=24 July 2018}}</ref> In the mid 19th century, the Ottomans constructed the first paved road from Jaffa to Jerusalem, and by 1892 the railroad had reached the city.<ref name=hujiOttoman/>

With the annexation of Jerusalem by Egyptian forces<ref>Jerusalem: The Biography by Simon Sebag Montefiore, Part 8; "The Albanian Conquest":

''The Albanians crushed the rebels and retook Jerusalem; the Husseinis of Jerusalem were exiled to Egypt''</ref> under [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali]] in 1831, foreign missions and consulates began to establish a foothold in the city. In 1836, [[Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt|Ibrahim Pasha]], son of Muhammad Ali Pasha, allowed Jerusalem's Jewish residents to restore four major synagogues, among them the [[Hurva Synagogue|Hurva]].<ref name=Gilbert37>Gilbert (1978), p. 37.</ref> In the countrywide [[Peasants' Revolt of 1834 (Palestine)|Peasants' Revolt]], [[Qasim al-Ahmad]] led his forces from [[Nablus]] and attacked Jerusalem, aided by the [[Abu Ghosh]] clan, and entered the city on 31 May 1834. The Christians and Jews of Jerusalem were subjected to attacks. Ibrahim's Egyptian army routed Qasim's forces in Jerusalem the following month.<ref>1834 Palestinian Arab Revolt
*Joel Beinin (2001) Workers and peasants in the modern Middle East Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-521-62903-4}}, p. 33
*Beshara, Doumani. (1995). ''[http://www.escholarship.org/editions/view?docId=ft896nb5pc&chunk.id=s1.1.6&toc.depth=1&toc.id=s1.1.6&brand=eschol;query=Qasim#1 Rediscovering Palestine: Egyptian rule, 1831–1840] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200324143302/http://www.escholarship.org/editions/view?docId=ft896nb5pc&chunk.id=s1.1.6&toc.depth=1&toc.id=s1.1.6&brand=eschol;query=Qasim#1 |date=24 March 2020 }}'' University of California Press.</ref>

Ottoman rule was reinstated in 1840. Many Egyptian Muslims remained in Jerusalem and Jews from [[Algiers]] and North Africa began to settle in the city in growing numbers.<ref name=Gilbert37/> In the 1840s and 1850s, the international powers began a tug-of-war in Palestine as they sought to extend their protection over the region's religious minorities, a struggle carried out mainly through consular representatives in Jerusalem.<ref>''Encyclopaedia Judaica'', Jerusalem, Keter, 1978, Volume 9, "State of Israel (Historical Survey)", pp. 304–06</ref> According to the Prussian consul, the population in 1845 was 16,410, with 7,120 Jews, 5,000 Muslims, 3,390 Christians, 800 Turkish soldiers and 100 Europeans.<ref name=Gilbert37/> The volume of Christian pilgrims increased under the Ottomans, doubling the city's population around Easter time.<ref name=Gilbert35>Gilbert (1978), p. 35.</ref>[[File:Jerusalem 1844 Aqsa.jpg|thumb|right|1844 [[daguerreotype]] by [[Joseph-Philibert Girault de Prangey]] (the earliest photograph of the city)]]In the 1860s, new neighbourhoods [[Expansion of Jerusalem in the 19th century|began to develop]] outside the Old City walls to house pilgrims and relieve the intense overcrowding and poor sanitation inside the city. The [[Russian Compound]] and [[Mishkenot Sha'ananim]] were founded in 1860,<ref>{{cite web |last=Eylon |first=Lili |title=Jerusalem: Architecture in the Late Ottoman Period |work=Focus on Israel |publisher=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs |date=April 1999 |url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/mfaarchive/1990_1999/1999/4/focus%20on%20israel-%20jerusalem%20-%20architecture%20in%20the%20l |access-date=20 April 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070415192039/http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/1990_1999/1999/4/Focus%20on%20Israel-%20Jerusalem%20-%20Architecture%20in%20the%20l |archive-date=15 April 2007}}</ref> followed by many others that included [[Mahane Israel]] (1868), [[Nahalat Shiv'a]] (1869), [[German Colony, Jerusalem|German Colony]] (1872), [[Beit David]] (1873), [[Mea Shearim]] (1874), [[Shimon HaTzadik|Shimon HaZadiq]] (1876), [[Beit Ya'akov, Jerusalem|Beit Ya'aqov]] (1877), [[Abu Tor]] (1880s), [[American Colony, Jerusalem|American-Swedish Colony]] (1882), [[Yemin Moshe]] (1891), and [[Mamilla]], [[Wadi al-Joz]] around the turn of the century. In 1867 an American Missionary reports an estimated population of Jerusalem of 'above' 15,000, with 4,000 to 5,000 Jews and 6,000 Muslims. Every year there were 5,000 to 6,000 Russian Christian Pilgrims.<ref>Ellen Clare Miller, ''Eastern Sketches – notes of scenery, schools and tent life in Syria and Palestine''. Edinburgh: William Oliphant and Company. 1871. p. 126: 'It is difficult to obtain a correct estimate of the number of inhabitants of Jerusalem...'</ref> In 1872 Jerusalem became the centre of a special administrative district, independent of the [[Syria Vilayet]] and under the direct authority of [[Istanbul]] called the [[Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem]].<ref>{{cite book |first=James P. |last=Jankowski |title=Rethinking Nationalism in the Arab Middle East |url={{Google books |id=f3axNF2GdCkC |plainurl=yes}} |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=1997 |page=174 |isbn=978-0-231-10695-5}}</ref>

The great number of Christian orphans resulting from the [[1860 Mount Lebanon civil war|1860 civil war in Mount Lebanon and the Damascus massacre]] led in the same year to the opening of the [[Protestant Church in Germany#History|German Protestant]] Syrian Orphanage, better known as the [[Schneller Orphanage]] after its founder.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Fruma Zachs |year=2019 |title=Children in war time: the first pupils of the Syrian (Schneller) orphanage in Jerusalem 1860–1863 |journal=[[Middle Eastern Studies]] |volume=55 |issue=6 |pages=958–73 |doi=10.1080/00263206.2019.1616546 |s2cid=202281138 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00263206.2019.1616546 |access-date=21 September 2020 |archive-date=3 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201003061025/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00263206.2019.1616546 |url-status=live}}</ref> Until the 1880s there were no formal Jewish orphanages in Jerusalem, as families generally took care of each other. In 1881 the [[Diskin Orphanage]] was founded in Jerusalem with the arrival of Jewish children orphaned by a Russian [[pogrom]]. Other orphanages founded in Jerusalem at the beginning of the 20th century were [[Zion Blumenthal Orphanage]] (1900) and [[General Israel Orphan's Home for Girls]] (1902).<ref>{{cite book |url={{Google books |id=eLgOAAAAQAAJ |page=3 |plainurl=yes}} |title=Israelis in Institutions: Studies in child placement, practice, and policy |first=Eliezer David |last=Jaffe |year=1983 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-0-677-05960-0 |page=3}}</ref>

====Jewish immigration to Palestine====
During the reign of Sultan [[Bayezid II]] (1481–1512), the gates of Ottoman Turkey were opened to the [[Expulsion of Jews from Spain|Jews expelled]] from [[Spain]], and in the days of Sultan [[Selim I]], they were allowed to enter the territories he conquered, including [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]].<ref name="Ben-Yosef">{{cite book |author-last=Ben-Yosef |author-first=Sefi |author-link=:he:ספי בן-יוסף |editor=Ben-Yosef, Sefi |contribution=A historical-settlement review |title=Israel Guide – Judaea (A useful encyclopedia for the knowledge of the country) |volume=9 |publisher=Keter Publishing House |location=Jerusalem |year=n.d. |page=50 |language=he |oclc=745203905}}</ref> Rabbi [[Moses Bassola]], who visited Palestine in 1521–1522, testified that, largely due to this immigration, the Jewish community in Jerusalem grew and the deportees from Spain became the majority of the Jewish population in Jerusalem (which at that time numbered about 300 families).<ref name="Ben-Yosef"/>

<gallery widths="200" heights="170">
File:מגדל דוד-חן חנה נחום.jpg|[[Tower of David]] citadel and the Ottoman walls
File:Ben Zakai.jpg|[[Four Sephardic Synagogues|Ben-Zakai]] synagogue, photo taken in 1893
File:Mishkenot Sha'ananim 1.jpg|Guesthouse in [[Mishkenot Sha'ananim]], the first Jewish neighborhood built outside the walls of the [[Old City of Jerusalem]] (1860), on a hill directly across from [[Mount Zion]]
</gallery>

====British Mandate (1917–1948)====
{{main|British Mandate-era Jerusalem}}
{{Further|Jerusalem Subdistrict, Mandatory Palestine}}
[[File:First Town Plan of Jerusalem, 1918, William McLean.jpg|thumb|[[William McLean (civil servant)|William McLean's]] 1918 plan was the first urban planning scheme for Jerusalem. It laid the foundations for what became [[West Jerusalem]] and East Jerusalem.<ref>Elisha Efrat and Allen G. Noble, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/215090 Planning Jerusalem] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211106002923/https://www.jstor.org/stable/215090 |date=6 November 2021 }}, Geographical Review, Vol. 78, No. 4 (Oct. 1988), pp. 387–404: "Modern planning began only after the British conquest of Palestine in World War I… In 1918 an engineer from Alexandria, William McLean, was commissioned to draft the first city plan… These provisions… caused the city to develop mainly to the west and southwest because of the restrictions on construction in the Old City and its immediate environs and the desire to retain the eastern skyline… McLean wanted Jerusalem to expand to the north, west, and south, with little development to the east because of climatic and topographical limitations. Thus almost from the onset of British colonial rule, development was encouraged in a generally westward direction, and this bias ultimately produced the initial contrasts that distinguished the eastern and western sectors of the city. McLean also adopted the principle of urban dispersal, and he proposed two main axes, one to the northwest and the other to the southwest of the Old City. His guidelines were repeated in most of the subsequent city plans."</ref>]]
[[File:VE day Jerusalem 1945.jpg|thumb|Jerusalem on [[Victory in Europe Day|VE Day]], 8 May 1945]]
In 1917 after the [[Battle of Jerusalem (1917)|Battle of Jerusalem]], the [[British Army]], led by [[Edmund Allenby, 1st Viscount Allenby|General Edmund Allenby]], captured the city.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fromkin |first=David |author-link=David Fromkin |publisher=Owl Books e |edition=2nd reprinted |isbn=978-0-8050-6884-9 |date=1 September 2001 |title=A Peace to End All Peace: The Fall of the Ottoman Empire and the Creation of the Modern Middle East |pages=[https://archive.org/details/peacetoendallpea00from/page/312 312–13] |title-link=A Peace to End All Peace: The Fall of the Ottoman Empire and the Creation of the Modern Middle East}}</ref> In 1922, the [[League of Nations]] at the [[Lausanne Conference of 1922–23|Conference of Lausanne]] entrusted the United Kingdom to [[Mandatory Palestine|administer]] [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], neighbouring [[Emirate of Transjordan|Transjordan]], and [[British Mandate of Mesopotamia|Iraq]] beyond it.

From 1922 to 1948 the total population of the city rose from 52,000 to 165,000, comprising two-thirds Jews and one-third Arabs (Muslims and Christians).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://focusonjerusalem.com/jerusalempopchart.html |title=Chart of the population of Jerusalem |publisher=Focusonjerusalem.com |access-date=11 September 2010 |archive-date=11 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150511164648/http://focusonjerusalem.com/jerusalempopchart.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Relations between Arab Christians and Muslims and the growing Jewish population in Jerusalem deteriorated, resulting in recurring unrest. In Jerusalem, in particular, [[1920 Palestine riots|Arab riots occurred in 1920]] and [[1929 Palestine riots|in 1929]]. Under the British, new garden suburbs were built in the western and northern parts of the city<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tamari |first=Salim |author-link=Salim Tamari |year=1999 |title=Jerusalem 1948: The Phantom City |journal=Jerusalem Quarterly File |issue=3 |format=Reprint |url=http://www.library.cornell.edu/colldev/mideast/tamjer.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060909050148/http://www.library.cornell.edu/colldev/mideast/tamjer.htm |archive-date=9 September 2006 |access-date=2 February 2007}}</ref><ref name=BIUmandate>{{cite web |last=Eisenstadt |first=David |title=The British Mandate |work=Jerusalem: Life Throughout the Ages in a Holy City |publisher=Bar-Ilan University Ingeborg Rennert Center for Jerusalem Studies |date=26 August 2002 |access-date=10 February 2007 |url=http://www.biu.ac.il/JS/rennert/history_12.html |archive-date=16 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151216173540/http://www.biu.ac.il/JS/rennert/history_12.html |url-status=dead}}</ref> and institutions of higher learning such as the [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem|Hebrew University]] were founded.<ref name=hujiHistory>{{cite web |title=History |publisher=The Hebrew University of Jerusalem |url=http://www.huji.ac.il/huji/eng/aboutHU_history_e.htm |access-date=18 March 2007 |archive-date=5 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130205121934/http://www.huji.ac.il/huji/eng/aboutHU_history_e.htm |url-status=live}}</ref>