Islam

=== Contemporary era (20th century–present) ===
[[File:13. Session of the Islamic Summit Conference.jpg|thumb|right|Leaders of Muslim countries during session of the [[Islamic Summit Conference]] in Istanbul, Turkey]]
Forerunners of Islamic modernism influenced Islamist political movements such as the [[Muslim Brotherhood]] and related parties in the Arab world,<ref>{{Cite news |date=9 August 2011 |title=Are secular forces being squeezed out of Arab Spring? |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-14447820 |access-date=10 August 2011 |archive-date=4 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221104171024/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-14447820 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Slackman |first=Michael |date=23 December 2008 |title=Jordanian students rebel, embracing conservative Islam |work=[[New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/24/world/middleeast/24jordan.html |access-date=15 August 2011 |archive-date=4 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221104153440/https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/24/world/middleeast/24jordan.html |url-status=live }}</ref> which performed well in elections following the [[Arab Spring]],<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kirkpatrick |first=David D. |date=3 December 2011 |title=Egypt's vote puts emphasis on split over religious rule |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/04/world/middleeast/egypts-vote-propels-islamic-law-into-spotlight.html |access-date=8 December 2011 |archive-date=4 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221104153442/https://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/04/world/middleeast/egypts-vote-propels-islamic-law-into-spotlight.html |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Jamaat-e-Islami]] in South Asia and the [[Justice and Development Party (Turkey)|AK Party]], which has democratically been in power in Turkey for decades. In [[Iran]], [[Iranian Revolution|revolution]] replaced a [[secularism|secular]] monarchy with an [[Islamic state]]. Others such as [[Rashid Rida|Sayyid Rashid Rida]] broke away from Islamic modernists<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lauziere|first=Henri|title=The Making of Salafism: Islamic Reform in the Twentieth Century|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2016|isbn=978-0-231-17550-0|location=New York, Chichester, West Sussex|page=237|quote="Prior to the fall of the Ottoman Empire, leading reformers who happened to be Salafi in creed were surprisingly open-minded: although they adhered to neo-Hanbali theology. However, the aftermath of the First World War and the expansion of European colonialism paved the way for a series of shifts in thought and attitude. The experiences of Rida offer many examples... he turned against the Shi'is who dared, with reason, to express doubts about the Saudi-Wahhabi project... . Shi'is were not the only victims: Rida and his associates showed their readiness to turn against fellow Salafis who questioned some of the Wahhabis' religious interpretations."}}</ref> and pushed against embracing what he saw as Western influence.<ref>{{Cite book|last=G. Rabil|first=Robert|title=Salafism in Lebanon: From Apoliticism to Transnational Jihadism|publisher=Georgetown University Press|year=2014|isbn=978-1-62616-116-0|location=Washington DC, US|pages=32–33|quote="Western colonialists established in these countries political orders... that, even though not professing enmity to Islam and its institutions, left no role for Islam in society. This caused a crisis among Muslim reformists, who felt betrayed not only by the West but also by those nationalists, many of whom were brought to power by the West...  Nothing reflects this crisis more than the ideological transformation of Rashid Rida (1865–1935)... He also revived the works of Ibn Taymiyah by publishing his writings and promoting his ideas. Subsequently, taking note of the cataclysmic events brought about by Western policies in the Muslim world and shocked by the abolition of the caliphate, he transformed into a Muslim intellectual mostly concerned about protecting Muslim culture, identity, and politics from Western influence. He supported a theory that essentially emphasized the necessity of an Islamic state in which the scholars of Islam would have a leading role... Rida was a forerunner of Islamist thought. He apparently intended to provide a theoretical platform for a modern Islamic state. His ideas were later incorporated into the works of Islamic scholars. Significantly, his ideas influenced none other than Hassan al-Bannah, founder of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt... The Muslim Brethren have taken up Rida's Islamic fundamentalism, a right-wing radical movement founded in 1928,.."}}</ref> The group [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant]] would even attempt to recreate the modern gold dinar as their monetary system. While some of those who broke away were [[political quietism in Islam|quietist]], others believed in violence against those opposing them, even against other Muslims.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/nov/14/isis-gold-silver-copper-islamic-dinar-coins |title=Isis to mint own Islamic dinar coins in gold, silver and copper |work=The Guardian |date=21 November 2014 |access-date=31 July 2022 |archive-date=4 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221104153442/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/nov/14/isis-gold-silver-copper-islamic-dinar-coins |url-status=live }}</ref>

In opposition to Islamic political movements, in 20th century Turkey, the military carried out [[1997 Turkish military memorandum|coups]] to oust Islamist governments, and headscarves were legally restricted, as also happened in Tunisia.<ref>{{Cite news |date=29 April 2011 |title=Huge rally for Turkish secularism |work=[[BBC News]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6604643.stm |access-date=6 December 2011 |archive-date=29 May 2012 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120529003102/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6604643.stm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Saleh |first=Heba |date=15 October 2011 |title=Tunisia moves against headscarves |work=[[BBC News]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6053380.stm |access-date=6 December 2011 |archive-date=29 May 2012 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120529003101/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6053380.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> In other places, religious authority was co-opted and is now often seen as puppets of the state. For example, in Saudi Arabia, the state monopolized religious scholarship<ref name="economist">{{Cite news |date=28 June 2007 |title=Laying down the law: Islam's authority deficit |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |url=http://www.economist.com/node/9409354?story_id=9409354 |access-date=15 August 2011 |archive-date=6 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306094736/http://www.economist.com/node/9409354?story_id=9409354 |url-status=live }}</ref> and, in Egypt, the state nationalized [[Al-Azhar University]], previously an independent voice checking state power.<ref>{{cite book| title = The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought| last1 = Bowering | first1 = Gerhard | last2=Mirza |first2=Mahan |last3=Crone |first3=Patricia| year = 2013 | publisher = Princeton University Press | page=59| isbn = 9780691134840
}}</ref> Salafism was funded in the Middle East for its quietism.<ref>{{cite web |date=18 October 2008 |title=Ultraconservative Islam on rise in Mideast |url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/27256187/page/2/ |access-date=24 September 2013 |publisher=[[MSNBC]] |archive-date=4 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104032423/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/27256187/page/2/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Saudi Arabia campaigned against revolutionary Islamist movements in the Middle East, in opposition to Iran.<ref name="NYT-20160105-maps">{{Cite news |last1=Almukhtar |first1=Sarah |last2=Peçanha |first2=Sergio |last3=Wallace |first3=Tim |date=5 January 2016 |title=Behind Stark Political Divisions, a More Complex Map of Sunnis and Shiites |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2016/01/04/world/middleeast/sunni-shiite-map-middle-east-iran-saudi-arabia.html |access-date=6 January 2016 |archive-date=4 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221104153442/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2016/01/04/world/middleeast/sunni-shiite-map-middle-east-iran-saudi-arabia.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Muslim minorities of various ethnicities have been persecuted as a religious group.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Thames |first1=Knox |title=Why the Persecution of Muslims Should Be on Biden's Agenda |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/01/06/muslims-islam-china-india-myanmar-persecution-repression-biden-human-rights/ |work=[[Foreign Policy Magazine]] |date=6 January 2021 |language=English |access-date=5 February 2022 |archive-date=11 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220211114303/https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/01/06/muslims-islam-china-india-myanmar-persecution-repression-biden-human-rights/ |url-status=live }}</ref> This has been undertaken by communist forces like the [[Khmer Rouge]], who viewed them as their primary enemy to be exterminated since their religious practice made them stand out from the rest of the population,<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Perrin |first=Andrew |date=10 October 2003 |title=Weakness in numbers |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,428133,00.html |access-date=24 September 2013 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=24 September 2013 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130924035829/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,428133,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref> the [[Chinese Communist Party]] in [[Xinjiang internment camps|Xinjiang]]<ref name="Beydoun2018">{{cite web |last1=Beydoun |first1=Khaled A. |title=For China, Islam is a 'mental illness' that needs to be 'cured' |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/china-islam-mental-illness-cured-181127135358356.html |publisher=[[Al Jazeera English|Al Jazeera]] |language=English |access-date=5 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181210012542/https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/china-islam-mental-illness-cured-181127135358356.html |archive-date=10 December 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> and by nationalist forces such as during the [[Bosnian genocide]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Mojzes |first=Paul |title=Balkan Genocides: Holocaust and Ethnic Cleansing in the Twentieth Century |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-4422-0663-2|page=178}}</ref> Myanmar military's [[Tatmadaw]] targeting of [[Rohingya people|Rohingya Muslims]] has been labeled as a crime against humanity by the UN and Amnesty International,<ref>{{cite news |author=Oliver Holmes |date=19 December 2016 |title=Myanmar's Rohingya campaign 'may be crime against humanity' |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/dec/19/myanmars-rohingya-campaign-may-be-against-humanity |url-status=live |access-date=5 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170106013700/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/dec/19/myanmars-rohingya-campaign-may-be-against-humanity |archive-date=6 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=19 December 2016|title=Rohingya abuse may be crimes against humanity: Amnesty|website=Al Jazeera|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/12/19/rohingya-abuse-may-be-crimes-against-humanity-amnesty/|access-date=2023-02-21|archive-date=22 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922232529/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/12/19/rohingya-abuse-may-be-crimes-against-humanity-amnesty/|url-status=live}}</ref> while the [[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights|OHCHR]] Fact-Finding Mission identified [[Rohingya genocide|genocide]], ethnic cleansing, and other crimes against humanity.<ref name="fact-finding">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/MyanmarFFM/Pages/ReportoftheMyanmarFFM.aspx|title=Report of Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on Myanmar |date=27 August 2018|website=ohchr.org|access-date=14 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181019232309/https://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/MyanmarFFM/Pages/ReportoftheMyanmarFFM.aspx|archive-date=19 October 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

The advancement of global communication has facilitated the widespread dissemination of religious knowledge. The adoption of the [[hijab]] has grown more common<ref>{{Cite news |last=Slackman |first=Michael |date=28 January 2007 |title=In Egypt, a new battle begins over the veil |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/28/weekinreview/28slackman.html |access-date=15 August 2011 |archive-date=3 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190503150409/https://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/28/weekinreview/28slackman.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and some Muslim intellectuals are increasingly striving to separate scriptural Islamic beliefs from cultural traditions.{{sfnp|Nigosian|2004|p=41}} Among other groups, this access to information has led to the rise of popular "[[televangelist]]" preachers, such as [[Amr Khaled]], who compete with the traditional [[ulema]] in their reach and have decentralized religious authority.<ref>{{Cite news|last=|first=|title=Islamic televangelist; holy smoke|agency=[[The Economist]]|url=http://www.economist.com/node/21534763|access-date=5 February 2022|archive-date=4 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130904164441/http://www.economist.com/node/21534763|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=263}} More "individualized" interpretations of Islam<ref>V. Šisler: ''The Internet and the Construction of Islamic Knowledge in Europe'' p. 212</ref> notably involve [[Liberal Muslims]] who attempt to align religious traditions with contemporary secular governance,{{sfnp|Esposito|2004|pp=118–119, 179}}{{sfnp|Rippin|2001|p=288}} an approach that has been criticized by some regarding its compatibility.<ref name="adams-114-sec">{{cite book|author1=Adams, Charles J.|editor1-last=Esposito|editor1-first=John L.|title=Voices of Resurgent Islam|url=https://archive.org/details/voicesofresurgen00hcen|url-access=registration|date=1983|publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=[https://archive.org/details/voicesofresurgen00hcen/page/113 113–4]|chapter=Maududi and the Islamic State|quote=[Maududi believed that] when religion is relegated to the personal realm, men inevitably give way to their bestial impulses and perpetrate evil upon one another. In fact it is precisely because they wish to escape the restraints of morality and the divine guidance that men espouse secularism.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Meisami|first=Sayeh|date=2013|title='Abdolkarim Soroush|url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195390155/obo-9780195390155-0034.xml|url-status=live|access-date=2021-10-12|website=Oxford Bibliographies|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105164410/http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195390155/obo-9780195390155-0034.xml |archive-date=2013-11-05 }}</ref> Moreover, secularism is perceived as a foreign ideology imposed by invaders and perpetuated by post-colonial [[Ruling class|ruling elites]],<ref name=saeed>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Secularism, State Neutrality, and Islam|author=Abdullah Saeed|encyclopedia=The Oxford Handbook of Secularism|editor1=Phil Zuckerman|editor2=John R. Shook|url=http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/abstract/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199988457.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199988457-e-12|year=2017|page=188|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199988457.013.12|isbn=978-0-19-998845-7|access-date=7 August 2023|archive-date=3 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210903020955/https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/abstract/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199988457.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199988457-e-12|url-status=live}}{{subscription required}}</ref> and is frequently understood to be equivalent to [[Antireligion|anti-religion]].<ref name=OEIW>{{cite encyclopedia|author=Nader Hashemi|title=Secularism|encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World|editor=John L. Esposito|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|year=2009|isbn=978-0-19-530513-5|url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001/acref-9780195305135-e-0714|access-date=7 August 2023|archive-date=6 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221206153300/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001/acref-9780195305135-e-0714|url-status=live}}{{subscription required}}</ref>