India Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! == Culture == {{Main|Culture of India}} {{multiple image|perrow=1|total_width=220|image_style = border:none;|align = right |image1=Sikh pilgrim at the Golden Temple (Harmandir Sahib) in Amritsar, India.jpg|caption1=A Sikh pilgrim at the [[Harmandir Sahib]], or Golden Temple, in [[Amritsar]], Punjab }} <!---{{#switch: {{#expr: {{CURRENTDAYOFYEAR}} mod 7}} |0=[[File:A Warli painting by Jivya Soma Mashe, Thane district.jpg|thumb|A [[Warli]] tribal painting by [[Jivya Soma Mashe]] from [[Thane district|Thane]], Maharashtra]] |1=[[File:Buddha in Sarnath Museum (Dhammajak Mutra).jpg|thumb|Seated Buddha; {{circa|{{CE|475}}}}; sandstone; [[Sarnath Museum]] (India). The Buddha's hands in the ''dharmachakra mudra'', a gesture of teaching, refer to his first sermon at [[Sarnath]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], where in 1905 the statue was rediscovered buried.]] |2=[[File:Goswami Tulsidas Awadhi Hindi Poet.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Awadhi language|Awadhi]] Hindi poet [[Tulsidas]] composed the ''[[Ramcharitmanas]]'', which is one of the best-known vernacular versions of the ''[[Ramayana]]''.]] |3=[[File:Hampi Royal Area, Vijayanagara Empire, Karnataka.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|[[Hampi]], seat of the Vijayanagara Empire]] |4=[[File:Mahabodhi Temple Bodh Gaya Bihar India.jpg|thumb|upright=.70|The [[Mahabodhi Temple]] in [[Bodh Gaya]], Bihar commemorates the enlightenment of Gautama Buddha.]] |5=[[File:Shiva as the Lord of Dance LACMA edit.jpg|thumb|upright|A Chola bronze depicting [[Nataraja]], who is seen as a cosmic "Lord of the Dance" and representative of [[Shiva]]]] |6=[[File:Toda Hut.JPG|thumb|A [[Toda people|Toda]] tribal hut exemplifies [[Indian vernacular architecture]].]] }}--> Indian cultural history spans more than {{nowrap|4,500 years}}.{{sfn|Kuiper|2010|p = 15}} During the [[Vedic period]] ({{Circa|{{BCE|1700}}|{{BCE|500}}}}), the foundations of [[Hindu philosophy]], [[Hindu mythology|mythology]], [[Hindu theology|theology]] and [[Hindu texts|literature]] were laid, and many beliefs and practices which still exist today, such as ''[[Dharma|dhárma]]'', ''[[Karma|kárma]]'', ''[[yoga|yóga]]'', and ''[[moksha|mokṣa]]'', were established.{{sfn|Kuiper|2010|p = 86}} India is notable for [[Indian religions|its religious diversity]], with [[Hinduism in India|Hinduism]], [[Buddhism in India|Buddhism]], [[Sikhism in India|Sikhism]], [[Islam in India|Islam]], [[Christianity in India|Christianity]], and [[Jainism in India|Jainism]] among the nation's major religions.{{sfn|Heehs|2002|pp = 2–5}} The predominant religion, Hinduism, has been shaped by various historical schools of thought, including those of the ''[[Upanishads]]'',{{sfn|Deutsch|1969|pp = 3, 78}} the ''[[Yoga Sutras of Patanjali|Yoga Sutras]]'', the [[Bhakti|''Bhakti'' movement]],{{sfn|Heehs|2002|pp = 2–5}} and by [[Buddhist philosophy]].{{sfn|Nakamura|1999}} === Visual art === {{Main|Indian art}} [[File:MET DT5237 (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|[[Gupta art|Gupta]] [[terracotta]] relief, [[Krishna]] Killing the [[Keshi (demon)|Horse Demon Keshi]], 5th century]] India has a very ancient tradition of art, which has exchanged many influences with the rest of [[Eurasia]], especially in the first millennium, when [[Buddhist art]] spread with Indian religions to [[Central Asia|Central]], [[East Asia|East]] and [[Southeast Asia]], the last also greatly influenced by Hindu art.<ref>Rowland, 185–198, 252, 385–466</ref> Thousands of [[Indus Valley civilisation#Seals|seals from the Indus Valley Civilization]] of the third millennium BCE have been found, usually carved with animals, but a few with human figures. The [["Pashupati" seal]], excavated in [[Mohenjo-daro]], Pakistan, in 1928–29, is the best known.{{Sfn|Craven|1997|pp=14–16}}{{Sfn|Harle|1994|pp=17–18}} After this there is a long period with virtually nothing surviving.{{Sfn|Harle|1994|pp=17–18}}{{Sfn|Rowland|1970|pp=46–47}} Almost all surviving ancient Indian art thereafter is in various forms of religious [[Indian sculpture|sculpture]] in durable materials, or coins. There was probably originally far more in wood, which is lost. In north India [[Mauryan art]] is the first imperial movement.{{Sfn|Craven|1997|pp=35–46}}{{Sfn|Rowland|1970|pp=67–70}}{{Sfn|Harle|1994|pp=22–24}} In the first millennium CE, [[Buddhist art]] spread with Indian religions to [[Central Asia|Central]], [[East Asia|East]] and [[Southeast Asia]], the last also greatly influenced by [[Hindu art]].{{Sfn|Rowland|1970|pp=185–198, 252, 385–466}} Over the following centuries a distinctly Indian style of sculpting the human figure developed, with less interest in articulating precise anatomy than [[ancient Greek sculpture]] but showing smoothly flowing forms expressing ''prana'' ("breath" or life-force).{{Sfn|Craven|1997|pp=22, 88}}{{Sfn|Rowland|1970|pp=35, 99–100}} This is often complicated by the need to give figures multiple arms or heads, or represent different genders on the left and right of figures, as with the [[Ardhanarishvara]] form of Shiva and [[Parvati]].{{Sfn|Craven|1997|pp=18–19}}{{Sfn|Blurton|1993|p=151}} Most of the earliest large sculpture is Buddhist, either excavated from Buddhist [[stupa]]s such as [[Sanchi]], [[Sarnath]] and [[Amaravati Stupa|Amaravati]],{{Sfn|Harle|1994|pp=32–38}} or is rock cut [[relief]]s at sites such as [[Ajanta Caves|Ajanta]], [[Karla Caves|Karla]] and [[Ellora]]. Hindu and Jain sites appear rather later.{{Sfn|Harle|1994|pp=43–55}}{{Sfn|Rowland|1970|pp=113–119}} In spite of this complex mixture of religious traditions, generally, the prevailing artistic style at any time and place has been shared by the major religious groups, and sculptors probably usually served all communities.{{Sfn|Blurton|1993|pp=10–11}} [[Gupta art]], at its peak {{circa|{{CE|300}}|{{CE|500}}}}, is often regarded as a classical period whose influence lingered for many centuries after; it saw a new dominance of Hindu sculpture, as at the [[Elephanta Caves]].{{Sfn|Craven|1997|pp=111–121}}{{Sfn|Michell|2000|pp=44–70}} Across the north, this became rather stiff and formulaic after {{circa|{{CE|800}}}}, though rich with finely carved detail in the surrounds of statues.{{Sfn|Harle|1994|pp=212–216}} But in the South, under the [[Pallava dynasty|Pallava]] and [[Chola dynasty|Chola dynasties]], sculpture in both stone and bronze had a [[Chola art and architecture#Sculpture and bronzes|sustained period of great achievement]]; the large bronzes with Shiva as [[Nataraja]] have become an iconic symbol of India.{{Sfn|Craven|1997|pp=152–160}}{{Sfn|Blurton|1993|pp=225–227}} [[File:Unknown, Kangra, India - Krishna Fluting to the Milkmaids - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|''Krishna Fluting to the Milkmaids'', [[Kangra painting]], 1775–1785]] Ancient painting has only survived at a few sites, of which the crowded scenes of court life in the [[Ajanta Caves]] are by far the most important, but it was evidently highly developed, and is mentioned as a courtly accomplishment in Gupta times.{{Sfn|Harle|1994|pp=356–361}}{{Sfn|Rowland|1970|pp=242–251}} Painted manuscripts of religious texts survive from Eastern India about the 10th century onwards, most of the earliest being Buddhist and later Jain. No doubt the style of these was used in larger paintings.{{Sfn|Harle|1994|pp=361–370}} The Persian-derived [[Deccan painting]], starting just before the [[Mughal miniature]], between them give the first large body of secular painting, with an emphasis on portraits, and the recording of princely pleasures and wars.{{Sfn|Craven|1997|pp=202–208}}{{Sfn|Harle|1994|pp=372–382, 400–406}} The style spread to Hindu courts, especially [[Rajput painting|among the Rajputs]], and developed a variety of styles, with the smaller courts often the most innovative, with figures such as [[Nihâl Chand]] and [[Nainsukh]].{{Sfn|Craven|1997|pp=222–243}}{{Sfn|Harle|1994|pp=384–397, 407–420}} As a market developed among European residents, it was supplied by [[Company painting]] by Indian artists with considerable Western influence.{{Sfn|Craven|1997|p=243}}{{Sfn|Michell|2000|p=210}} In the 19th century, cheap [[Kalighat painting]]s of gods and everyday life, done on paper, were urban [[folk art]] from [[Calcutta]], which later saw the [[Bengal School of Art]], reflecting the art colleges founded by the British, the first movement in [[modern Indian painting]].{{Sfn|Michell|2000|pp=210–211}}{{Sfn|Blurton|1993|p=211}} === Architecture === {{Main|Architecture of India}} {{multiple image | perrow = 1 | total_width = 250 | image_style = border:none; | align = left | image1 = Aks The Reflection Taj Mahal.jpg | caption1 = The Taj Mahal from across the [[Yamuna river]] showing two outlying red sandstone buildings, a mosque on the right (west) and a ''jawab'' (response) thought to have been built for architectural balance }} Much of Indian architecture, including the [[Taj Mahal]], other works of [[Mughal architecture|Indo-Islamic Mughal architecture]], and [[Dravidian architecture|South Indian architecture]], blends ancient local traditions with imported styles.{{sfn|Kuiper|2010|pp = 296–329}} [[Indian vernacular architecture|Vernacular architecture]] is also regional in its flavours. ''[[Vastu shastra]]'', literally "science of construction" or "architecture" and ascribed to [[Mamuni Mayan]],{{sfn|Silverman|2007|p = 20}} explores how the laws of nature affect human dwellings;{{sfn|Kumar|2000|p=5}} it employs precise geometry and directional alignments to reflect perceived cosmic constructs.{{sfn|Roberts|2004|p=73}} As applied in [[Hindu temple architecture]], it is influenced by the ''[[Shilpa Shastras]]'', a series of foundational texts whose basic mythological form is the ''Vastu-Purusha mandala'', a square that embodied the "[[Absolute (philosophy)|absolute]]".{{sfn|Lang|Moleski|2010|pp = 151–152}} The Taj Mahal, built in [[Agra]] between 1631 and 1648 by orders of [[Mughal emperors|Mughal emperor]] [[Shah Jahan]] in memory of his wife, has been described in the [[UNESCO World Heritage List]] as "the jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world's heritage".{{sfn|United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organisation}} [[Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture]], developed by the British in the late 19th century, drew on [[Indo-Islamic architecture]].{{sfn|Chopra|2011|p = 46}} === Literature === {{Main|Indian literature}} The earliest literature in India, composed between {{BCE|1500}} and {{CE|1200}}, was in the [[Sanskrit]] language.{{sfn|Hoiberg|Ramchandani|2000}} Major works of [[Sanskrit literature]] include the ''[[Rigveda]]'' ({{circa|{{BCE|1500}}|{{BCE|1200}}}}), the [[Indian epic poetry|epics]]: ''[[Mahabharata|Mahābhārata]]'' ({{circa|{{BCE|400}}|{{CE|400}}}}) and the ''[[Ramayana]]'' ({{circa|{{BCE|300}}}} and later); ''Abhijñānaśākuntalam'' (''[[The Recognition of Śakuntalā]]''), and other dramas of [[Kālidāsa]] ({{circa|{{CE|5th century}}}}) and ''[[Sanskrit Classical poetry|Mahākāvya]]'' poetry.{{sfn|Johnson|2008}}{{sfn|MacDonell|2004|pp=1–40}}{{sfn|Kālidāsa|Johnson|2001}} In [[Tamil literature]], the [[Sangam literature]] ({{circa|{{BCE|600}}|{{BCE|300}}}}) consisting of 2,381 poems, composed by 473 poets, is the earliest work.{{sfn|Zvelebil|1997|p = 12}}{{sfn|Hart|1975}}{{sfn|Ramanujan|1985|pp=ix–x}}<ref>{{citation|title=Tamil Literature|year=2008|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|url=https://www.britannica.com/art/Tamil-literature|access-date=12 February 2022<!--|quote=Apart from literature written in classical (Indo-Aryan) Sanskrit, Tamil is the oldest literature in India. Some inscriptions on stone have been dated to the 3rd century BC, but [[Tamil literature]] proper begins around the 1st century AD. Much early poetry was religious or epic; an exception was the secular court poetry written by members of the ''sangam'', or literary academy (see Sangam literature).-->}}</ref> From the 14th to the 18th centuries, India's literary traditions went through a period of drastic change because of the emergence of [[Bhakti movement|devotional poets]] like [[Kabir|Kabīr]], [[Tulsidas|Tulsīdās]], and [[Guru Nanak|Guru Nānak]]. This period was characterised by a varied and wide spectrum of thought and expression; as a consequence, medieval Indian literary works differed significantly from classical traditions.{{sfn|Das|2005}} In the 19th century, Indian writers took a new interest in social questions and psychological descriptions. In the 20th century, Indian literature was influenced by the [[Works of Rabindranath Tagore|works]] of the Bengali poet, author and philosopher [[Rabindranath Tagore]],{{sfn|Datta|2006}} who was a recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]]. === Performing arts and media === {{Main|Music of India|Dance in India|Cinema of India|Television in India}} {{multiple image|perrow=1|total_width=180|image_style = border:none;| align = right |image1=Kuchipudi Performer DS.jpg|caption1=India's [[Sangeet Natak Akademi|National Academy of Performance Arts]] has recognised eight Indian dance styles to be ''classical''. One such is [[Kuchipudi]] shown here. }} <!--- {{#switch: {{#expr: {{CURRENTDAYOFYEAR}} mod 8}} |0=[[File:Flickr - dalbera - Bimbavati Devi (Manipuri) (5).jpg|thumb|upright|left|India's [[Sangeet Natak Akademi|National Academy of Performing Arts]], has recognised eight dance styles as ''classical''. One such is [[Manipuri dance|Manipuri]] shown here. The others are: (a) [[Bharatanatyam]]; (b) [[Kathak]]; (c) [[Kathakali]]; (d) [[Odissi]]; (e) [[Kuchipudi]]; (f) [[Sattriya]]; and (g) [[Mohiniyattam]].]] |1=[[File:Kathak Rounds (10)2.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The [[Sangeet Natak Akademi]], India's national academy of performance arts, has recognised eight Indian dance styles to be ''classical''. One such is [[Kathak]] shown here. The others are: (a) [[Bharatanatyam]]; (b) [[Kathakali]]; (c) [[Sattriya]]; (d) [[Manipuri dance|Manipuri]]; (e) [[Odissi]]; (f) [[Mohiniyattam]]; and (g) [[Kuchipudi]].]] |2=[[File:Kathakali IMG 0289 by Joseph Lazercropped.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The [[Sangeet Natak Akademi]], India's national academy of performance arts, has recognised eight Indian dance styles to be ''classical''. One such is [[Kathakali]] shown here. The others are: (a) [[Bharatanatyam]]; (b) [[Kathak]]; (c) [[Sattriya]]; (d) [[Manipuri dance|Manipuri]]; (e) [[Odissi]]; (f) [[Mohiniyattam]]; and (g) [[Kuchipudi]].]] |3=[[File:Sattriya Dancer Krishnakshi Kashyap2.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The [[Sangeet Natak Akademi]], India's national academy of performance arts, has recognised eight Indian dance styles to be ''classical''. One such is [[Sattriya]] shown here. The others are: (a) [[Bharatanatyam]]; (b) [[Kathak]]; (c) [[Kathakali]]; (d) [[Manipuri dance|Manipuri]]; (e) [[Odissi]]; (f) [[Mohiniyattam]]; and (g) [[Kuchipudi]].]] |4=[[File:Rekha Raju DS 2.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The [[Sangeet Natak Akademi]], India's national academy of performance arts, has recognised eight Indian dance styles to be ''classical''. One such is [[Mohiniyattam]] shown here. The others are: (a) [[Bharatanatyam]]; (b) [[Kathak]]; (c) [[Kathakali]]; (d) [[Manipuri dance|Manipuri]]; (e) [[Odissi]]; (f) [[Sattriya]]; and (g) [[Kuchipudi]].]] |5=[[File:Kuchipudi Performer DS.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The [[Sangeet Natak Akademi]], India's national academy of performance arts, has recognised eight Indian dance styles to be ''classical''. One such is [[Kuchipudi]] shown here. The others are: (a) [[Bharatanatyam]]; (b) [[Kathak]]; (c) [[Kathakali]]; (d) [[Manipuri dance|Manipuri]]; (e) [[Odissi]]; (f) [[Sattriya]]; and (g) [[Mohiniyattam]].]] |6=[[File:Odissi Performance DS.jpg|thumb|upright|left|The [[Sangeet Natak Akademi]], India's national academy of performance arts, has recognised eight Indian dance styles to be ''classical''. One such is [[Odissi]] shown here. The others are: (a) [[Bharatanatyam]]; (b) [[Kathak]]; (c) [[Kathakali]]; (d) [[Manipuri dance|Manipuri]]; (e) [[Kuchipudi]]; (f) [[Sattriya]]; and (g) [[Mohiniyattam]].]] |7=[[File:Bharata Natyam Performance DS.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The [[Sangeet Natak Akademi]], India's national academy of performance arts, has recognised eight Indian dance styles to be ''classical''. One such is [[Bharatanatyam]] shown here. The others are: (a) [[Kathak]]; (b) [[Kathakali]]; (c) [[Sattriya]]; (d) [[Manipuri dance|Manipuri]]; (e) [[Odissi]]; (f) [[Mohiniyattam]]; and (g) [[Kuchipudi]].]] }}--> Indian music ranges over various traditions and regional styles. [[Indian classical music|Classical music]] encompasses two genres and their various folk offshoots: the northern [[Hindustani classical music|Hindustani]] and the southern [[Carnatic music|Carnatic]] schools.{{sfn|Massey|Massey|1998}} Regionalised popular forms include [[filmi]] and [[Indian folk music|folk music]]; the [[Syncretism|syncretic]] tradition of the ''[[baul]]s'' is a well-known form of the latter. [[Dance in India|Indian dance]] also features diverse folk and classical forms. Among the better-known [[List of Indian folk dances|folk dances]] are: ''[[Bhangra (dance)|bhangra]]'' of Punjab, ''[[bihu dance|bihu]]'' of Assam, ''[[Jhumair]]'' and ''[[Chhau dance|chhau]]'' of Jharkhand, Odisha and West Bengal, ''[[Garba (dance)|garba]]'' and ''[[Dandiya Raas|dandiya]]'' of Gujarat, ''[[ghoomar]]'' of Rajasthan, and ''[[lavani]]'' of Maharashtra. Eight dance forms, many with narrative forms and mythological elements, have been accorded [[Classical Indian dance|classical dance status]] by India's [[Sangeet Natak Akademi|National Academy of Music, Dance, and Drama]]. These are: ''[[Bharata Natyam|bharatanatyam]]'' of the state of Tamil Nadu, ''[[kathak]]'' of Uttar Pradesh, ''[[kathakali]]'' and ''[[mohiniyattam]]'' of Kerala, ''[[kuchipudi]]'' of Andhra Pradesh, ''[[Manipuri dance|manipuri]]'' of Manipur, ''[[odissi]]'' of Odisha<!--Do not change this per [[WP:COMMONNAME]].-->, and the ''[[sattriya]]'' of Assam.<ref>{{citation|title=South Asian Arts: Indian Dance|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/556016/South-Asian-arts/65246/Indian-dance |access-date=17 July 2011}}</ref> [[Theatre in India]] melds music, dance, and improvised or written dialogue.{{sfn|Lal|2004|pp = 23, 30, 235}} Often based on Hindu mythology, but also borrowing from medieval romances or social and political events, Indian theatre includes: the ''[[bhavai]]'' of Gujarat, the ''[[Jatra (Bengal)|jatra]]'' of West Bengal, the ''[[nautanki]]'' and ''[[ramlila]]'' of North India, ''[[tamasha]]'' of Maharashtra, ''[[burrakatha]]'' of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, ''[[terukkuttu]]'' of Tamil Nadu, and the ''[[yakshagana]]'' of Karnataka.{{sfn|Karanth|2002|p = 26}} India hosts the [[National School of Drama]] (NSD), a premier theatre training institute located in [[New Delhi]]. It is an autonomous organisation under the [[Ministry of Culture (India)|Ministry of Culture]], [[Government of India]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/2009/20090315/spectrum/main1.htm|title=In step with the times: Chaman Ahuja on how the National School of Drama has evolved over the past 50 years|website=[[The Tribune]]|date=15 March 2009|access-date=4 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010083957/https://www.tribuneindia.com/2009/20090315/spectrum/main1.htm|archive-date=10 October 2017}}</ref> <!--- {{#switch: {{#expr: {{CURRENTDAYOFYEAR}} mod 5}} |0=[[File:Flickr - dalbera - Sudheshna Bhattacharya (musée Guimet, Paris) (1).jpg|thumb|[[Sarod]] performance at the Musée Guimet, Paris]] |1=[[File:Ravikiran 25 A.jpg|thumb|upright=1.55|South Indian ([[Carnatic music|Carnatic]]) musical performance. From left to right: Guruvayur Dorai, [[mridangam]]; Ravi Balasubramanian, [[ghatam]]; Ravikiran, electric [[chitraveena]]; and Akkarai S. Subhalakshmi, [[violin]]]] |2=[[File:India - Actors - 0258.jpg|thumb|Actors at the [[avant-garde]] theatre [[Koothu-P-Pattarai]] in [[Chennai]] apply make up to each other in preparation for a performance.<ref name="hindu">{{cite news| last =Santhanam| first =Kausalya| title =Master of avant-garde theatre| newspaper =[[The Hindu]]| url =https://www.hindu.com/fr/2008/11/28/stories/2008112850610300.htm| access-date =1 February 2009| date =21 September 2005| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20121103201109/https://www.hindu.com/fr/2008/11/28/stories/2008112850610300.htm| archive-date =3 November 2012| url-status =dead}}</ref>]] |3=[[File:Plucked string instruments (5) Indian string instruments, Sarod, Sitar, Iktara - Soinuenea.jpg|thumb|upright|Three plucked string instruments of Indian music, L to R, [[Sarod]], [[Sitar]], which are used in [[North Indian classical music]] and the [[Iktara]], lit. "one string instrument", commonly used in [[Indian folk music]].]] |4=[[File:Satyajit Ray with Ravi Sankar recording for Pather Panchali.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Film director [[Satyajit Ray]] (left) and sitar maestro [[Ravi Shankar]] discussing the musical score of the movie ''[[Pather Panchali]]'', which was to win Ray the ''Best Human Document'' award at the [[Cannes Film Festival]] in 1956,<ref name="Cooper2000">{{citation|last=Cooper|first=Darius|title=The Cinema of Satyajit Ray: Between Tradition and Modernity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zCgk3ld8EMkC&pg=PA4|year=2000|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-0-521-62980-5|page=4}}</ref> and set in motion a career that led to an [[Academy Honorary Award]] in 1992.<ref name="Ganguly2010">{{citation|last=Ganguly|first=Keya|title=Cinema, Emergence, and the Films of Satyajit Ray|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jEOSyjLc4L8C&pg=PA26|year=2010|publisher=[[University of California Press]]|isbn=978-0-520-26216-4|page=26}}</ref> ]] }}--> The [[Cinema of India|Indian film industry]] produces the world's most-watched cinema.{{sfn|Dissanayake|Gokulsing|2004}} Established regional cinematic traditions exist in the [[Cinema of Assam|Assamese]], [[Cinema of West Bengal|Bengali]], [[Bhojpuri cinema|Bhojpuri]], [[Bollywood|Hindi]], [[Cinema of Karnataka|Kannada]], [[Malayalam cinema|Malayalam]], [[Cinema of Punjab|Punjabi]], [[Gujarati cinema|Gujarati]], [[Marathi cinema|Marathi]], [[Cinema of Odisha|Odia]], [[Tamil cinema|Tamil]], and [[Telugu cinema|Telugu]] languages.{{sfn|Rajadhyaksha|Willemen|1999|page = 652}} The Hindi language film industry (''Bollywood'') is the largest sector representing 43% of box office revenue, followed by the [[Cinema of South India|South Indian]] Telugu and Tamil film industries which represent 36% combined.<ref name="deloitte">{{cite web|url=https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/in/Documents/technology-media-telecommunications/in-tmt-economic-contribution-of-motion-picture-and-television-industry-noexp.pdf|title=Economic Contribution of the Indian Motion Picture and Television Industry|publisher=[[Deloitte]]|date=March 2014|access-date=21 April 2014}}</ref> Television broadcasting began in India in 1959 as a state-run medium of communication and expanded slowly for more than two decades.{{sfn|Narayan|2013|pp=66–67}}{{sfn|Kaminsky|Long|2011|pp = 684–692}} The [[Doordarshan|state monopoly]] on television broadcast ended in the 1990s. Since then, satellite channels have increasingly shaped the popular culture of Indian society.{{sfn|Mehta|2008|pp = 1–10}} Today, television is the most penetrative media in India; industry estimates indicate that {{As of|2012|lc=y}} there are over 554 million TV consumers, 462 million with satellite or cable connections compared to other forms of mass media such as the press (350 million), radio (156 million) or internet (37 million).{{sfn|Hansa Research|2012}} === Society === {{multiple image|perrow=1|total_width=220|image_style = border:none;| align = left |image1=Muslims praying in mosque in Srinagar, Kashmir.jpg|caption1=Muslims offer ''[[Salah|namaz]]'' at a mosque in [[Srinagar]], Jammu and Kashmir.}} Traditional Indian society is sometimes defined by social hierarchy. The [[Caste system in India|Indian caste system]] embodies much of the social stratification and many of the social restrictions found on the Indian subcontinent. Social classes are defined by thousands of [[endogamous]] hereditary groups, often termed as ''[[jāti]]s'', or "castes".{{sfn|Schwartzberg|2011}} India abolished [[untouchability]] in 1950 with the adoption of the [[Constitution of India|constitution]] and has since enacted other anti-discriminatory laws and social welfare initiatives. [[Family values]] are important in the Indian tradition, and multi-generational [[patrilineal]] [[joint family|joint families]] have been the norm in India, though [[nuclear family|nuclear families]] are becoming common in urban areas.{{sfn|Makar|2007}} An overwhelming majority of Indians, with their consent, have [[Arranged marriage in the Indian subcontinent|their marriages arranged]] by their parents or other family elders.{{sfn|Medora|2003}} Marriage is thought to be for life,{{sfn|Medora|2003}} and the divorce rate is extremely low,{{sfn|Jones|Ramdas|2005|p = 111}} with less than one in a thousand marriages ending in divorce.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-37481054|title=What divorce and separation tell us about modern India|first=Soutik|last=Biswas|date=29 September 2016|access-date=18 October 2021|work=[[BBC News]]}}</ref> [[Child marriage]]s are common, especially in rural areas; many women wed before reaching 18, which is their legal marriageable age.{{sfn|Cullen-Dupont|2009|p = 96}} [[Female infanticide in India]], and lately [[female foeticide in India|female foeticide]], have created skewed gender ratios; the number of [[missing women]] in the country quadrupled from 15 million to 63 million in the 50-year period ending in 2014, faster than the population growth during the same period, and constituting 20 percent of India's female electorate.<ref name="The Hindu_November_17_2019c">{{cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/indias-missing-women/article5670801.ece |title=India's missing women|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|date=10 February 2014|last1=Kapoor|first1=Mudit|last2=Shamika|first2=Ravi |access-date= 17 November 2019 |quote=In the last 50 years of Indian democracy, the absolute number of missing women has increased fourfold from 15 million to 68 million. This is not merely a reflection of the growth in the overall population, but, rather, of the fact that this dangerous trend has worsened with time. As a percentage of the female electorate, missing women have gone up significantly — from 13 per cent to approximately 20 per cent}}</ref> According to an Indian government study, an additional 21 million girls are unwanted and do not receive adequate care.<ref name="The_Guardian_November_17_2019c">{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jan/30/more-than-63-million-women-missing-in-india-statistics-show |title=More than 63 million women 'missing' in India, statistics show |newspaper=[[Associated Press]] via [[The Guardian]] |date= 30 January 2018 |access-date= 17 November 2019}} Quote: "More than 63 million women are "missing" statistically across India, and more than 21 million girls are unwanted by their families, government officials say. The skewed ratio of men to women is largely the result of sex-selective abortions, and better nutrition and medical care for boys, according to the government's annual economic survey, which was released on Monday. In addition, the survey found that "families where a son is born are more likely to stop having children than families where a girl is born".</ref> Despite a government ban on sex-selective foeticide, the practice remains commonplace in India, the result of a preference for boys in a patriarchal society.<ref name="Foreign_Policy_November_17_2019c">{{cite web |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/08/15/a-generation-of-girls-is-missing-in-india/ |title=A Generation of Girls Is Missing in India – Sex-selective abortion fuels a cycle of patriarchy and abuse.|newspaper=[[Foreign Policy]] |first=Ira|last=Trivedi |date=15 August 2019 |access-date= 17 November 2019}} Quote: "Although it has been illegal nationwide for doctors to disclose the sex of a fetus since the 1994 Pre-Conception and Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques Act, the ease of ordering cheap and portable ultrasound machines, especially online, has kept the practice of sex-selective abortions alive."</ref> The payment of [[Dowry system in India|dowry]], although [[Dowry law in India|illegal]], remains widespread across class lines.<ref>{{cite news|first=Dean|last=Nelson|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/india/10280802/Woman-killed-over-dowry-every-hour-in-India.html|title=Woman killed over dowry 'every hour' in India|work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|access-date=10 February 2014|date=2 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140323074436/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/india/10280802/Woman-killed-over-dowry-every-hour-in-India.html|archive-date=23 March 2014}}</ref> [[Dowry deaths|Deaths resulting from dowry]], mostly from [[bride burning]], are on the rise, despite stringent anti-dowry laws.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/rising-number-of-dowry-deaths-in-india-ncrb/article4995677.ece|title=Rising number of dowry deaths in India: NCRB|work=[[The Hindu]]|access-date=10 February 2014|first=Ignatius |last=Pereira|date=6 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140207050439/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/rising-number-of-dowry-deaths-in-india-ncrb/article4995677.ece|archive-date=7 February 2014}}</ref> Many [[Public holidays in India|Indian festivals]] are religious in origin. The best known include [[Diwali]], [[Ganesh Chaturthi]], [[Thai Pongal]], [[Holi]], [[Durga Puja]], [[Eid ul-Fitr]], [[Bakr-Id]], [[Christmas worldwide#India|Christmas]], and [[Vaisakhi]].<ref>{{citation|url=https://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/Culture/Festivals/Festiv.html|title=Indian Festivals|website=sscnet.ucla.edu|publisher=[[University of California, Los Angeles]] |access-date=14 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160701222430/https://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/Culture/Festivals/Festiv.html|archive-date=1 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{citation |title=Popular India Festivals |url=https://festivals.indobase.com/index.html |website=festivals.indobase.com |access-date=23 December 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728120656/https://festivals.indobase.com/index.html |archive-date=28 July 2011}}</ref> === Education === {{Main|Education in India|Literacy in India|History of education in the Indian subcontinent}} [[File:47 Raika School - eating together (3384824242).jpg|thumb|right|220px|Children awaiting school lunch in Rayka (also Raika), a village in rural Gujarat. The salutation ''[[Jai Bhim]]'' written on the blackboard honours the jurist, social reformer, and [[Dalit]] leader [[B. R. Ambedkar]].]] In the 2011 census, about 73% of the population was literate, with 81% for men and 65% for women. This compares to 1981 when the respective rates were 41%, 53% and 29%. In 1951 the rates were 18%, 27% and 9%. In 1921 the rates 7%, 12% and 2%. In 1891 they were 5%, 9% and 1%,<ref>{{cite journal|first=Rajni|last=Pathania|title=Literacy in India: Progress and Inequality|url=https://www.bangladeshsociology.org/LiteracyinIndiaBEJS17.1.pdf|volume=17|website=bangladeshsociology.org|publisher=Bangladesh e-Journal of Sociology|date=January 2020|issue=1|access-date=18 October 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first=Dandapani|last=Natarajan|title=Extracts from the All India Census Reports on Literacy|url=https://lsi.gov.in:8081/jspui/bitstream/123456789/366/1/26501_1971_CEN.pdf|publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India|Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India]]|year=1971|access-date=18 October 2021}}</ref> According to Latika Chaudhary, in 1911 there were under three primary schools for every ten villages. Statistically, more caste and religious diversity reduced private spending. Primary schools taught literacy, so local diversity limited its growth.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Latika|last=Chaudhary|title=Determinants of primary schooling in British India|journal=Journal of Economic History|date=March 2009|volume=69|pages=269–302|number=1|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/231178962|doi=10.1017/S0022050709000400|s2cid=21620741}}</ref> The education system of India is the world's second-largest.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.studyinindia.gov.in/whyindiaeducation|title=Study in India|website=studyinindia.gov.in|access-date=18 October 2021}}</ref> India has over 900 universities, 40,000 colleges<ref name="highered1">{{cite web |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/hrd-to-increase-nearly-25-pc-seats-in-varsities-to-implement-10-pc-quota-for-poor-in-gen-category/articleshow/67545006.cms |title=HRD to increase nearly 25 pc seats in varsities to implement 10 pc quota for poor in gen category |newspaper=[[The Economic Times]] |date=15 January 2019|access-date=18 October 2021}}</ref> and 1.5 million schools.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://dashboard.udiseplus.gov.in/#/home|title=UDISE+ Dashboard|website=dashboard.udiseplus.gov.in|publisher=[[Ministry of Education (India)|Ministry of Education]]|access-date=18 October 2021}}</ref> In India's higher education system, a significant number of seats are reserved under [[Reservation in India|affirmative action]] policies for the historically disadvantaged. In recent decades India's improved education system is often cited as one of the main contributors to its [[economic development in India|economic development]].<ref name=Sify>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sify.com/finance/fullstory.php?id=1475704|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140220170624/https://www.sify.com/finance/india-achieves-27-decline-in-poverty-news-news-jegxaXgfcab.html|title=India achieves 27% decline in poverty|work=[[Press Trust of India]] via [[Sify.com]]|date=12 September 2008|archive-date=20 February 2014|access-date=18 October 2021|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=N. Jayapalan|title=History of Education in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IDNeW78fedkC|year=2005|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Distributors|isbn=978-81-7156-922-9}}</ref> === Clothing === {{Main|Clothing in India}} {{multiple image|perrow = 2|total_width = 360 | align = right | image_style = border:none; | image1 = India School.jpg | caption1 = Women in [[sari]] at an adult literacy class in [[Tamil Nadu]] | image2 = Water pump, Varanasi (15563170660) Cropped.jpg | caption2 = A man in [[dhoti]] and wearing a woollen shawl, in [[Varanasi]] }} From ancient times until the advent of the modern, the most widely worn traditional dress in India was [[Draped garment|draped]].<ref name="Tarlo1996-26">{{harvnb|Tarlo|1996|p=26}}</ref> For women it took the form of a [[sari]], a single piece of cloth many yards long.<ref name="Tarlo1996-26" /> The sari was traditionally wrapped around the lower body and the shoulder.<ref name="Tarlo1996-26" /> In its modern form, it is combined with an underskirt, or Indian [[Petticoat#Asian petticoats|petticoat]], and tucked in the waist band for more secure fastening. It is also commonly worn with an Indian [[blouse]], or [[choli]], which serves as the primary upper-body garment, the sari's end—passing over the shoulder—serving to cover the midriff and obscure the upper body's contours.<ref name="Tarlo1996-26" /> For men, a similar but shorter length of cloth, the [[dhoti]], has served as a lower-body garment.<ref name="Tarlo1996-26-28">{{harvnb|Tarlo|1996|pp=26–28}}</ref> {{multiple image | perrow = 1 | total_width = 180 | align = left | image_style = border:none; | image1 = Strolling Shoppers in Paltan Bazaar.jpg | caption1 = Women (from left to right) in [[churidar]]s and [[kameez]] (with back to the camera), jeans and sweater, and pink [[shalwar kameez]]<!-- a boy in [[kurta]] with [[chikan (embroidery)|chikan]] embroidery--> }} The use of stitched clothes became widespread after Muslim rule was established at first by the [[Delhi sultanate]] ({{Circa|1300 CE}}) and then continued by the [[Mughal Empire]] ({{Circa|1525 CE}}).<ref name="Rahman-Alkazi2002">{{citation |last=Alkazi |first=Roshen |editor=Rahman, Abdur |title=India's Interaction with China, Central and West Asia |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NZvpAAAAMAAJ |year=2002 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-565789-0 |pages=464–484 |chapter=Evolution of Indian Costume as a result of the links between Central Asia and India in ancient and medieval times}}</ref> Among the garments introduced during this time and still commonly worn are: the [[shalwar]]s and [[pyjama]]s, both styles of trousers, and the tunics [[kurta]] and [[kameez]].<ref name="Rahman-Alkazi2002" /> In southern India, the traditional draped garments were to see much longer continuous use.<ref name="Rahman-Alkazi2002" /> Shalwars are atypically wide at the waist but narrow to a cuffed bottom. They are held up by a drawstring, which causes them to become pleated around the waist.<ref name="StevensonWaite2011">{{citation|last1=Stevenson|first1=Angus|last2=Waite|first2=Maurice|title=Concise Oxford English Dictionary: Book & CD-ROM Set|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4XycAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1272|year=2011|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|access-date=3 September 2019|isbn=978-0-19-960110-3|page=1272}}</ref> The pants can be wide and baggy, or they can be cut quite narrow, on the [[Grain (textile)#Bias|bias]], in which case they are called [[churidar]]s. When they are ordinarily wide at the waist and their bottoms are hemmed but not cuffed, they are called pyjamas. The kameez is a long shirt or tunic,<ref name="StevensonWaite2011-b">{{citation|last1=Stevenson|first1=Angus|last2=Waite|first2=Maurice|title=Concise Oxford English Dictionary: Book & CD-ROM Set|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4XycAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA774|year=2011|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-960110-3|page=774}}</ref> its side seams left open below the waist-line.<ref>{{citation|url=https://dsalsrv04.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/platts_query.py?page=418|author=Platts, John T. (John Thompson)|title=A dictionary of Urdu, classical Hindi, and English|location=London|page=418|publisher=[[W. H. Allen & Co.]]|year=1884|access-date=26 August 2019|archive-date=24 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224204345/https://dsalsrv04.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/platts_query.py?page=418|url-status=dead}} (online; updated February 2015)</ref> The [[kurta]] is traditionally collarless and made of cotton or silk; it is worn plain or with embroidered decoration, such as [[chikan (embroidery)|chikan]]; and typically falls to either just above or just below the wearer's knees.<ref name="Shukla2015">{{citation|last=Shukla|first=Pravina|title=The Grace of Four Moons: Dress, Adornment, and the Art of the Body in Modern India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MlObCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA71|year=2015|publisher=[[Indiana University Press]]|isbn=978-0-253-02121-2|page=71}}</ref> In the last 50 years, fashions have changed a great deal in India. Increasingly, in urban northern India, the sari is no longer the apparel of everyday wear, though they remain popular on formal occasions.<ref name="Dwyer2014">{{citation|last=Dwyer|first=Rachel|author-link=Rachel Dwyer|title=Bollywood's India: Hindi Cinema as a Guide to Contemporary India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DqwBBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA244|year=2014|publisher=[[Reaktion Books]]| isbn=978-1-78023-304-8|pages=244–245}}</ref> The traditional shalwar kameez is rarely worn by younger urban women, who favour churidars or jeans.<ref name="Dwyer2014" /> In white-collar office settings, ubiquitous air conditioning allows men to wear sports jackets year-round.<ref name="Dwyer2014" /> For weddings and formal occasions, men in the middle- and upper classes often wear [[bandgala]], or short [[Nehru jackets]], with pants, with the groom and his [[groomsmen]] sporting [[sherwani]]s and churidars.<ref name="Dwyer2014" /> The dhoti, once the universal garment of Hindu males, the wearing of which in the homespun and handwoven [[khadi]] allowed Gandhi to bring Indian nationalism to the millions,<ref name="BruzziGibson2013">{{citation|last=Dwyer|first=Rachel|author-link=Rachel Dwyer|editor=Stella Bruzzi, Pamela Church Gibson|title=Fashion Cultures: Theories, Explorations and Analysis|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FYGMAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA178|year=2013|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1-136-29537-9|pages=178–189|chapter=Bombay Ishtyle}}</ref> is seldom seen in the cities.<ref name="Dwyer2014" /> === Cuisine === {{Main|Indian cuisine}} {{multiple image|perrow = 1/2|total_width = 180 | align = right | image_style = border:none; | image2 = Odia Mutton Curry (Mansha Tarkari) Rotated.jpg | caption2 = Railway [[mutton curry]] from [[Odisha]] | image1 = South Indian Thali Cropped.jpg | caption1 = South Indian vegetarian [[thali]], or platter }} The foundation of a typical Indian meal is a cereal cooked in a plain fashion and complemented with flavourful savoury dishes.<ref name="Davidson2014-p409">{{citation|last=Davidson|first=Alan|title=The Oxford Companion to Food|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RL6LAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA409|year=2014|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-967733-7|page=409}}</ref> The cooked cereal could be steamed rice; [[chapati]], a thin unleavened bread made from wheat flour, or occasionally cornmeal, and griddle-cooked dry;<ref name="Davidson2014-p161">{{citation|last=Davidson|first=Alan|title=The Oxford Companion to Food|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RL6LAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA161|year=2014|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-967733-7|page=161|quote=Chapatis are made from finely milled whole-wheat flour, called chapati flour or atta, and water. The dough is rolled into thin rounds which vary in size from region to region and then cooked without fat or oil on a slightly curved griddle called a tava.}}</ref> the [[idli]], a steamed breakfast cake, or [[Dosa (food)|dosa]], a griddled pancake, both leavened and made from a batter of rice- and [[Vigna mungo|gram]] meal.<ref name=tamang-yeast-idlidosa>{{citation|last1=Tamang|first1=J. P.|last2=Fleet|first2=G. H.|editor1-last=Satyanarayana|editor1-first=T.|editor2-last=Kunze|editor2-first=G.|chapter=Yeasts Diversity in Fermented Foods and Beverages|title=Yeast Biotechnology: Diversity and Applications|publisher=Springer|page=180|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jLFmiervaqMC&pg=PA180|year=2009|isbn=978-1-4020-8292-4|quote=Idli is an acid-leavened and steamed cake made by bacterial fermentation of a thick batter made from coarsely ground rice and dehulled black gram. Idli cakes are soft, moist and spongy, have desirable sour flavour, and is eaten as breakfast in South India. Dosa batter is very similar to idli batter, except that both the rice and black gram are finely grounded. The batter is thinner than that of idli and is fried as a thin, crisp pancake and eaten directly in South India.}}</ref> The savoury dishes might include [[lentil]]s, [[pulses]] and vegetables commonly spiced with [[ginger root|ginger]] and [[garlic]], but also with a combination of spices that may include [[coriander]], [[cumin]], [[turmeric]], [[cinnamon]], [[cardamon]] and others as informed by culinary conventions.<ref name="Davidson2014-p409" /> They might also include poultry, fish, or meat dishes. In some instances, the ingredients might be mixed during the process of cooking.<ref name=jhala-princely-biryani>{{citation|last=Jhala|first=Angma Day|title=Royal Patronage, Power and Aesthetics in Princely India|publisher=Routledge|page=70|year=2015|isbn=978-1-317-31657-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WGpECgAAQBAJ&pg=PA70|quote=With the ascent of the Mughal Empire in sixteenth-century India, Turkic, Persian and Afghan traditions of dress, 'architecture and cuisine' were adopted by non-Muslim indigenous elites in South Asia. In this manner, Central Asian cooking merged with older traditions within the subcontinent, to create such signature dishes as biryani (a fusion of the Persian pilau and the spice-laden dishes of Hindustan), and the Kashmiri meat stew of Rogan Josh. It not only generated new dishes and entire cuisines, but also fostered novel modes of eating. Such newer trends included the consumption of Persian condiments, which relied heavily on almonds, pastries and quince jams, alongside Indian achars made from sweet limes, green vegetables and curds as side relishes during Mughlai meals.}}</ref> A platter, or [[thali]], used for eating usually has a central place reserved for the cooked cereal, and peripheral ones for the flavourful accompaniments, which are often served in small bowls. The cereal and its accompaniments are eaten simultaneously rather than a piecemeal manner. This is accomplished by mixing—for example of rice and lentils—or folding, wrapping, scooping or dipping—such as chapati and cooked vegetables or lentils.<ref name="Davidson2014-p409" /> India has distinctive vegetarian cuisines, each a feature of the geographical and cultural histories of its adherents.<ref name="Davidson2014-p410">{{citation|last=Davidson|first=Alan|title=The Oxford Companion to Food|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RL6LAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA410|year=2014|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-967733-7|page=410}}</ref> The appearance of ''[[ahimsa]]'', or the avoidance of violence toward all forms of life in many religious orders early in Indian history, especially [[Upanishads|Upanishadic Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]], is thought to have contributed to the predominance of vegetarianism among a large segment of India's Hindu population, especially in southern India, Gujarat, the [[Hindi]]-speaking belt of north-central India, as well as among Jains.<ref name="Davidson2014-p410" /> Although meat is eaten widely in India, the proportional consumption of meat in the overall diet is low.<ref name="SahakianSaloma2016-50">{{citation|last1=Sahakian|first1=Marlyne|last2=Saloma|first2=Czarina|last3=Erkman|first3=Suren|title=Food Consumption in the City: Practices and patterns in urban Asia and the Pacific|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TBIxDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT50|year=2016|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|isbn=978-1-317-31050-1|page=50}}</ref> Unlike China, which has increased its per capita meat consumption substantially in its years of increased economic growth, in India the strong dietary traditions have contributed to dairy, rather than meat, becoming the preferred form of animal protein consumption.<ref name="OECDNations2018">{{citation|author1=OECD|author2=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|title=OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook 2018–2027|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JuBiDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA21|year=2018|publisher=[[OECD Publishing]]|isbn=978-92-64-06203-0|page=21}}</ref> The most significant import of cooking techniques into India during the last millennium occurred during the [[Mughal Empire]]. Dishes such as the [[pilaf]],{{sfn|Roger|2000}} developed in the [[Abbasid caliphate]],<ref name=sengupta-74>{{citation|last=Sengupta|first=Jayanta |editor=Freedman, Paul |editor2=Chaplin, Joyce E. |editor3=Albala, Ken |title=Food in Time and Place: The American Historical Association Companion to Food History|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SNQkDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA74|year=2014|publisher=[[University of California Press]]|isbn=978-0-520-27745-8|page=74|chapter=India}}</ref> and cooking techniques such as the marinating of meat in yogurt, spread into northern India from regions to its northwest.<ref name="CollinghamCollingham2007">{{citation|last=Collingham|first=Elizabeth M.|title=Curry: A Tale of Cooks and Conquerors|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pH88DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA25|year=2007|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-532001-5|page=25}}</ref> To the simple yogurt marinade of Persia, onions, garlic, almonds, and spices began to be added in India.<ref name="CollinghamCollingham2007" /> Rice was partially cooked and layered alternately with the sauteed meat, the pot sealed tightly, and slow cooked according to another Persian cooking technique, to produce what has today become the Indian [[biryani]],<ref name="CollinghamCollingham2007" /> a feature of festive dining in many parts of India.<ref name=nandy2004>{{citation|last1=Nandy|first1=Ashis|author-link=Ashis Nandy|title=The Changing Popular Culture of Indian Food: Preliminary Notes|journal=[[South Asia Research]]|volume=24|issue=1|year=2004 |pages=9–19|issn=0262-7280|doi=10.1177/0262728004042760|citeseerx=10.1.1.830.7136|s2cid=143223986}}</ref> In the food served in Indian restaurants worldwide the diversity of Indian food has been partially concealed by the dominance of [[Punjabi cuisine]]. The popularity of [[tandoori chicken]]—cooked in the [[tandoor]] oven, which had traditionally been used for baking bread in the rural Punjab and the Delhi region, especially among Muslims, but which is originally from [[Central Asia]]—dates to the 1950s, and was caused in large part by an entrepreneurial response among people from the Punjab who had been displaced by the 1947 [[partition of India]].<ref name="Davidson2014-p410" /> === Sports and recreation === {{Main|Sport in India}} {{multiple image | perrow = 1 | total_width = 220 | image_style = border:none; | align = right | image1 = Filles jouant à la marelle, Jaura, Inde.jpg | caption1 = Girls play [[hopscotch]] in [[Jaora]], Madhya Pradesh. Hopscotch has been commonly played by girls in rural India.<ref name="SrinivasanJermyn2001">{{citation|last1=Srinivasan|first1=Radhika|last2=Jermyn|first2=Leslie|last3=Lek|first3=Hui Hui|title=India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zoVby4OJWhYC&pg=PA109|year=2001|publisher=Times Books International|isbn=978-981-232-184-8|page=109}} Quote: "Girls in India usually play jump rope, or hopscotch, and five stones, tossing the stones up in the air and catching them in many different ways ... the coconut-plucking contests, groundnut-eating races, ... of rural India."</ref> | direction = | alt1 = }} Several [[Traditional games of India|traditional indigenous sports]] such as ''[[kabaddi]]'', ''[[kho kho]]'', ''[[pehlwani]]'' and ''[[gilli-danda]]'', and also [[Indian martial arts|martial arts]] such as ''[[Kalarippayattu]]'' and ''[[marma adi]]'', remain popular. [[Chess in India|Chess]] is commonly held to have [[History of chess#India|originated in India]] as ''[[chaturanga|chaturaṅga]]'';{{sfn|Wolpert|2003|p = 2}} in recent years, there has been a rise in the number of Indian [[Grandmaster (chess)|grandmasters]].{{sfn|Rediff 2008 b}} [[Viswanathan Anand]] became the [[World Chess Championship 2007|Chess World Champion]] in 2007 and held the title until 2013. He also won the [[Chess World Cup]] in [[Chess World Cup 2000|2000]] and [[Chess World Cup 2002|2002]]. In 2023, 18-year-old [[R Praggnanandhaa]] finished as runner-up in the [[Chess World Cup 2023]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.chessvibes.com/candidates%E2%80%99-r13-anand-draws-clinches-rematch-with-carlsen |title=Candidates' R13: Anand Draws, Clinches Rematch with Carlsen |access-date=14 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150111220728/https://www.chessvibes.com/candidates%E2%80%99-r13-anand-draws-clinches-rematch-with-carlsen |archive-date=11 January 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Parcheesi]] is derived from ''[[Pachisi]]'', another traditional Indian pastime, which in early modern times was played on a giant marble court by [[Mughal Empire|Mughal emperor]] [[Akbar the Great]].{{sfn|Binmore|2007|p = 98}} The [[tabletop game]] [[carrom]], which originated in India, is also very popular.<ref>History of Physical Education, p.209, SR Tiwari, APH Publishing</ref> [[Cricket in India|Cricket]] is the most popular sport in India.<ref>{{citation|last=Shores|first=Lori|title=Teens in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CPQmbyiS-iEC|access-date=24 July 2011|date=15 February 2007|publisher=[[Compass Point Books]]|isbn=978-0-7565-2063-2|page=78|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120617050252/https://books.google.com/books?id=CPQmbyiS-iEC|archive-date=17 June 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> Major domestic leagues include the [[Indian Premier League]]. Professional leagues in other sports include the [[Indian Super League]] ([[soccer|football]]) and the [[Pro Kabaddi League|Pro Kabaddi]] league.<ref>{{cite web|date=26 September 2021|title=From IPL to ISL, sports leagues in India to watch out for|url=https://www.financialexpress.com/sports/from-ipl-to-isl-sports-leagues-in-india-to-watch-out-for/2337628/|access-date=3 December 2021|website=The Financial Express|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Indian Super League: Odisha president says sacking Stuart Baxter was 'the only course of action'|url=https://www.skysports.com/football/news/11995/12207157/indian-super-league-odisha-president-says-sacking-stuart-baxter-was-the-only-course-of-action|access-date=3 December 2021|publisher=Sky Sports}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|date=6 August 2014|title=Kabaddi gets the IPL treatment|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-28660432|access-date=3 December 2021}}</ref> [[File:Sachin Tendulkar about to score 14000th run in test cricket.jpg|thumb|upright=2|left|Indian [[cricket]]er [[Sachin Tendulkar]] about to score a record 14,000 runs in [[Test cricket]] while playing against Australia in [[Bangalore]], 2010]] [[India national cricket team|India]] has won two [[Cricket World Cup]]s, the [[1983 Cricket World Cup|1983 edition]] and the [[2011 Cricket World Cup|2011 edition]], as well as becoming the inaugural [[T20 World Cup]] Champions in [[2007 ICC World Twenty20|2007]]. India has also won the [[ICC Champions Trophy|Champions Trophy]] twice, in [[2002 ICC Champions Trophy|2002]] and [[2013 ICC Champions Trophy|2013]]. The only edition of the [[World Championship of Cricket]] was won by India in [[1985 World Championship of Cricket final|1985]]. India also has eight field hockey gold medals in the [[Field hockey at the Summer Olympics|summer olympics]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/amp/sports/other-sports/story/independence-day-india-at-70-cricket-football-hockey-kabaddi-1029624-2017-08-14|title=What India was crazy about: Hockey first, Cricket later, Football, Kabaddi now?|website=India Today}}</ref> The improved results garnered by the [[India Davis Cup team|Indian Davis Cup team]] and other tennis players in the early 2010s have made tennis increasingly popular in the country.{{sfn|Futterman|Sharma|2009}} India has a comparatively strong presence in shooting sports, and has won several medals at the [[Olympic Games|Olympics]], the [[ISSF World Shooting Championships|World Shooting Championships]], and the [[Commonwealth Games]].{{sfn|Commonwealth Games 2010}}{{sfn|Cyriac|2010}} Other sports in which Indians have succeeded internationally include [[badminton]]{{sfn|British Broadcasting Corporation 2010 a}} ([[Saina Nehwal]] and [[P. V. Sindhu]] are two of the top-ranked female badminton players in the world), boxing,{{sfn|Mint 2010}} and wrestling.{{sfn|Xavier|2010}} [[Football in India|Football]] is popular in [[West Bengal]], [[Goa]], [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Kerala]], and the [[Seven Sister States|north-eastern states]]. India has traditionally been the dominant country at the [[South Asian Games]]. An example of this dominance is the [[Basketball at the South Asian Games|basketball competition]], where the [[India national basketball team|Indian team]] won four out of five tournaments to date.<ref>{{cite news |title=Basketball team named for 11th South Asian Games |url=https://nation.com.pk/02-Jan-2010/basketball-team-named-for-11th-south-asian-games |access-date=23 November 2019 |work=[[The Nation (Pakistan)|The Nation]] |publisher=Nawaiwaqt Group |date=2 January 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121202035448/https://www.nation.com.pk/pakistan-news-newspaper-daily-english-online/lahore/02-Jan-2010/Basketball-team-named-for-11th-South-Asian-Games |archive-date=2 December 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Majumdar|Bandyopadhyay|2006|pp = 1–5}} <!--- {{#switch: {{#expr: {{CURRENTDAYOFYEAR}} mod 8}} |0=[[File:Filles jouant à la marelle, Jaura, Inde.jpg|thumb|left|Girls play [[hopscotch]] in [[Juara]], Madhya Pradesh. Hopscotch has been commonly played by girls in rural India.}}<ref name="SrinivasanJermyn2001">{{citation|last1=Srinivasan|first1=Radhika|last2=Jermyn|first2=Leslie|last3=Lek|first3=Hui Hui|title=India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zoVby4OJWhYC&pg=PA109|year=2001|publisher=Times Books International|isbn=978-981-232-184-8|page=109}} Quote: "Girls in India usually play jump rope, or hopscotch, and five stones, tossing the stones up in the air and catching them in many different ways ... the coconut-plucking contests, groundnut-eating races, ... of rural India."</ref>]] |1=[[File:Indian-Hockey-Team-Berlin-1936.jpg|thumb|left|Indian hockey team, captained by [[Dhyan Chand]] (standing second from left), after winning the finals at the [[1936 Summer Olympics]] – their third of six consecutive Olympic golds.]] |2=[[File:Sania Mirza during her first round match with Virginie Razzano, Day 2 of Wimbledon 2011.jpg|thumb|left|[[Sania Mirza]] is an Indian professional tennis player, a former [[List of WTA number 1 ranked players|world No. 1]] in doubles, who has won six [[Grand Slam (tennis)|Grand Slam titles]] in her career.}}<ref name=No1ranking>{{cite news|title=Hingis and Mirza win. Mirza becomes No. 1|url=https://www.wtatennis.com/news/article/4634188/title/hingis-mirza-win-mirza-becomes-no1|access-date=19 April 2015|publisher=[[Women's Tennis Association]]|date=12 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150415000115/https://www.wtatennis.com/news/article/4634188/title/hingis-mirza-win-mirza-becomes-no1|archive-date=15 April 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> She is shown here at Wimbledon, 2011.]] |3=[[File:Kabaddi in Bagepalli Karnataka.jpg|thumb|left|A game of ''kabaddi'' in [[Bagepalli]], Karnataka]] |4= [[File:Joueursindienspushkar.jpg|thumb|left|A street-corner game of ''pachisi'' in [[Pushkar]], Rajasthan]] |5=[[File:Street Cricket Batter India.jpg|thumb|left|Cricket is the most popular sport in India.<ref name="HongMangan2005">{{citation|last1=Hong|first1=Fan|last2=Mangan|first2=J.A.|title=Sport in Asian Society: Past and Present|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C0iQAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA306|year=2005|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1-135-76043-4|page=306}}</ref> Shown here is an example of [[street cricket]].]] |6=[[File:Viswanathan Anand 08 14 2005.jpg|thumb|left|Indian chess grandmaster and former world champion [[Vishwanathan Anand]] competes at a chess tournament in 2005. Chess is commonly believed to have originated in India in the 5th century CE.]] |7=[[File:XIX Commonwealth Games-2010 Delhi Indian shuttler Saina Nehwal in action against her Barbados opponent during their match in the preliminary round of badminton event, at Sirifort Sports Complex, in New Delhi.jpg|left|thumb|[[Saina Nehwal]] is the only Indian female to have become world number one in [[badminton]]]] }}--> India has hosted or co-hosted several international sporting events: the [[1951 Asian Games|1951]] and [[1982 Asian Games]]; the [[1987 Cricket World Cup|1987]], [[1996 Cricket World Cup|1996]], [[2011 Cricket World Cup|2011]] and [[2023 ICC Men's Cricket World Cup]] tournaments (and is also scheduled to host it in [[2031 Cricket World Cup|2031]]); the [[1978 Women's Cricket World Cup|1978]], [[1997 Women's Cricket World Cup|1997]] and [[2013 Women's Cricket World Cup|2013 ICC Women's Cricket World Cup]] tournaments (and is also scheduled to host it in [[2025 Women's Cricket World Cup|2025]]); the [[1987 South Asian Games|1987]], [[1995 South Asian Games|1985]] and [[2016 South Asian Games]]; the [[1990-91 Asia Cup|1990-91 Men's Asia Cup]]; the [[Chess World Cup 2002|2002 Chess World Cup]]; the [[2003 Afro-Asian Games]]; the [[2006 ICC Champions Trophy|2006 ICC Cricket Champion's Trophy]] (and is also scheduled to host it in [[2029 ICC Champions Trophy|2029]]); the [[2006 Women's Asia Cup]]; the [[2009 BWF World Championships|2009 World Badminton Championships]]; the [[2010 Men's Hockey World Cup|2010 Hockey World Cup]]; the [[2010 Commonwealth Games]]; the [[2016 T20 World Cup|2016 ICC Men's Cricket T20 World Cup]] (and is also scheduled to host it in [[2026 ICC Men's T20 World Cup|2026]]); the [[2016 ICC Women's World Twenty20|2016 ICC Women's Cricket T20 World Cup]]; and the [[2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup]]. Major international sporting events held annually in India include the [[Maharashtra Open]], the [[Mumbai Marathon]], the [[Delhi Half Marathon]], and the [[Indian Masters]]. The first Formula 1 [[Indian Grand Prix]] featured in late 2011 but has been discontinued from the F1 season calendar since 2014.{{sfn|Dehejia|2011}} Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. If you do not want your writing to be edited mercilessly, then do not submit it here. You are also promising us that you wrote this yourself, or copied it from a public domain or similar free resource (see Christianpedia:Copyrights for details). Do not submit copyrighted work without permission! Cancel Editing help (opens in new window) Discuss this page