Ancient Rome

=== Government ===
{{Main|Roman Constitution|History of the Roman Constitution}}
{{Further|History of citizenship#Roman conceptions of citizenship}}
Initially, Rome was ruled by [[Roman Kingdom|kings]], who were elected from each of Rome's major tribes in turn.{{Sfn|Matyszak|2003|pages=16–42}} The exact nature of the king's power is uncertain. He may have held near-absolute power, or may have merely been the chief executive of the [[SPQR|Senate and the people]]. In military matters, the king's authority (''[[Imperium]]'') was likely absolute. He was also the head of the [[Religion in ancient Rome|state religion]]. In addition to the authority of the King, there were three administrative assemblies: the [[Roman Senate|Senate]], which acted as an advisory body for the King; the [[Curiate Assembly|Comitia Curiata]], which could endorse and ratify laws suggested by the King; and the [[Roman assemblies|Comitia Calata]], which was an assembly of the priestly college that could assemble the people to bear witness to certain acts, hear proclamations, and declare the [[Festival|feast]] and holiday schedule for the next month.

[[File:Cicero Denounces Catiline in the Roman Senate by Cesare Maccari.png|thumb|upright=1.15|Representation of a sitting of the [[Roman Senate]]: [[Cicero]] attacks [[Catiline|Catilina]], from a 19th-century fresco by [[Cesare Maccari]], in [[Palazzo Madama, Rome|Palazzo Madama]], home to Italy's Senate]]
The [[class struggle]]s of the [[Roman Republic]] resulted in an unusual mixture of democracy and [[oligarchy]]. The word republic comes from the Latin ''[[res publica]]'', which literally translates to "public business". [[List of Roman laws|Roman laws]] traditionally could only be passed by a vote of the Popular assembly ([[Tribal Assembly|Comitia Tributa]]). Likewise, candidates for public positions had to run for election by the people. However, the [[Roman Senate]] represented an oligarchic institution, which acted as an advisory body.

In the Republic, the Senate held actual authority (''[[auctoritas]]''), but no real legislative power; it was technically only an advisory council. However, as the Senators were individually very influential, it was difficult to accomplish anything against the collective will of the Senate. New senators were chosen from among the most accomplished [[Patrician (ancient Rome)|patricians]] by [[Roman censor|censors]] (''Censura''), who could also remove a senator from his office if he was found "morally corrupt"; a charge that could include bribery or, as under [[Cato the Elder]], embracing one's wife in public. Later, under the reforms of the dictator [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla|Sulla]], [[quaestor]]s were made automatic members of the Senate, though most of his reforms did not survive.

The Republic had no fixed [[bureaucracy]], and collected taxes through the practice of [[tax farming]]. Government positions such as quaestor, [[aedile]], or [[Prefect|praefect]] were funded by the office-holder. To prevent any citizen from gaining too much power, new [[magistrate]]s were elected annually and had to share power with a colleague. For example, under normal conditions, the highest authority was held by two consuls. In an emergency, a temporary [[Roman dictator|dictator]] could be appointed. Throughout the Republic, the administrative system was revised several times to comply with new demands. In the end, it proved inefficient for controlling the ever-expanding dominion of Rome, contributing to the establishment of the [[Roman Empire]].

In the early Empire, the pretense of a republican form of government was maintained. The [[Roman Emperor]] was portrayed as only a ''[[princeps]]'', or "first citizen", and the Senate gained legislative power and all legal authority previously held by the popular assemblies. However, the rule of the Emperors became increasingly [[Autocracy|autocratic]], and the Senate was reduced to an advisory body appointed by the Emperor. The Empire did not inherit a set bureaucracy from the Republic, since the Republic did not have any permanent governmental structures apart from the Senate. The Emperor appointed assistants and advisers, but the state lacked many institutions, such as a centrally planned [[budget]]. Some historians have cited this as a significant reason for the [[decline of the Roman Empire]].