History of Christianity

====Investiture and papal primacy====
[[File:Canossa-gate.jpg|thumb|[[Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry IV]], the [[Holy Roman Emperor]] at the gate of [[Canossa Castle]] in 1077, during the [[Investiture controversy]].|alt=image of painting of Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor, at the gate of Canossa Castle in 1077]]
The [[Investiture controversy]] began in the [[Holy Roman Empire]] in 1078. Specifically a dispute between the Holy Roman Emperor [[Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry IV]] and [[Pope Gregory VII]] (1073-1085) concerning who would appoint, [[investiture|''invest'']], bishops, it was more generally, a conflict between king and pope over control of the church.{{sfn|Garrett|1987|pp=5–7}}{{sfn|Grzymała-Busse|2023|p=51}}{{sfn|Thompson|2016|pp=176–182}}{{sfn|Dowley|2018|p=159}} The Church had become committed to the doctrine of papal supremacy by the end of the ninth century, but it wasn't until the eleventh century that Gregory recorded a series of formal statements strongly asserting papal supremacy saying the church could no longer be treated as servant to the state. {{sfn|Thompson|2016|pp=177-178}}{{sfn|MacCulloch|2009|pp=324, 374}}{{sfn|Althoff|2019a|p=199}} 

Ending lay investiture would undercut the power of the Holy Roman Emperor and the ambitions of the [[European nobility]], but allowing lay investiture to continue meant the Pope's authority over his own people was almost non-existent.{{sfn|Grzymała-Busse|2023|pp=51–52}}{{refn|group=note|Bishoprics being merely lifetime appointments, a king could better control their powers and revenues than those of hereditary noblemen. Even better, he could leave the post vacant and collect the revenues, theoretically in trust for the new bishop, or give a bishopric to pay a helpful noble.{{sfn|Grzymała-Busse|2023|pp=51–52}} The Roman Catholic Church wanted to end lay investiture to end this and other abuses, to reform the episcopate and provide better [[pastoral care]] and separation of church and state.{{sfn|Grzymała-Busse|2023|p=25}} Pope Gregory VII issued the ''[[Dictatus Papae]]'', which declared that the pope alone could appoint bishops.{{sfn|Grzymała-Busse|2023|p=25}} Henry IV's rejection of the decree led to his [[Excommunication (Catholic Church)|excommunication]] and a ducal revolt. Eventually, Henry IV received absolution after a [[Road to Canossa|dramatic public penance]], though the [[Saxon revolt of 1077–1088|Great Saxon Revolt]] and conflict of investiture continued.{{sfn|Garrett|1987|p=8}}}} Disobedience to the Pope became equated with heresy.{{sfn|Althoff|2019b|p=175}} Before this, kings had been largely exempt from the requirement of obedience to the Pope because they occupied a special position of their own based on [[Divine right of kings|divine right]].{{sfn|Althoff|2019a|p=191}}  

It took "five decades of excommunications, denunciations and mutual depositions...spanning the reign of two emperors and six popes" only to end inconclusively in 1122.{{sfn|Grzymała-Busse|2023|p=52}}{{sfn|MacCulloch|2009|p=375}} A similar controversy occurred in England.{{sfn|Vaughn|1980|pp=61–86}}
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