Buddhism

==Common Buddhist practices==
[[File:Sermon in the Deer Park depicted at Wat Chedi Liem-KayEss-1.jpeg|thumb|Sermon in the [[Sarnath|Deer Park]] depicted at [[Wat Chedi Liam]], near [[Chiang Mai]], [[Northern Thailand]]]]

===Hearing and learning the Dharma===
In various suttas which present the graduated path taught by the Buddha, such as the ''[[Samaññaphala Sutta]]'' and the ''Cula-Hatthipadopama Sutta,'' the first step on the path is hearing the Buddha teach the Dharma. This then said to lead to the acquiring of confidence or faith in the Buddha's teachings.<ref name=":0" />

Mahayana Buddhist teachers such as [[Yin Shun]] also state that hearing the Dharma and study of the Buddhist discourses is necessary "if one wants to learn and practice the Buddha Dharma."<ref>Yin-shun (2012). "The Way to Buddhahood: Instructions from a Modern Chinese Master," p. 29. Simon and Schuster.</ref> Likewise, in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, the "Stages of the Path" (''Lamrim'') texts generally place the activity of listening to the Buddhist teachings as an important early practice.<ref>See for example, Tsong-Kha-Pa (2015) ''"The Great Treatise on the Stages of the Path to Enlightenment"'', chapter three. Shambala Pubs.<br /></ref>

===Refuge===
{{Main|Refuge (Buddhism)}}
Traditionally, the first step in most Buddhist schools requires taking of the "Three Refuges", also called the Three Jewels ([[Sanskrit]]: ''triratna'', [[Pali]]: ''tiratana'') as the foundation of one's religious practice.{{sfnp|Harvey|2013|p=249}} This practice may have been influenced by the [[Hinduism|Brahmanical]] motif of the triple refuge, found in the ''[[Rigveda]]'' 9.97.47, ''Rigveda'' 6.46.9 and ''[[Chandogya Upanishad]]'' 2.22.3–4.{{sfnp|Shults|2014|p=108}} Tibetan Buddhism sometimes adds a fourth refuge, in the ''[[lama]]''. The three refuges are believed by Buddhists to be protective and a form of reverence.{{sfnp|Harvey|2013|p=249}}

The ancient formula which is repeated for taking refuge affirms that "I go to the Buddha as refuge, I go to the Dhamma as refuge, I go to the Sangha as refuge."{{sfnp|Harvey|2013|p=244}} Reciting the three refuges, according to Harvey, is considered not as a place to hide, rather a thought that "purifies, uplifts and strengthens the heart".{{sfnp|Harvey|2013|pp=244–245}}

===''Śīla'' – Buddhist ethics===
{{Main|Buddhist ethics}}
[[File:Buddhist_alms_in_Si_Phan_Don.jpg|thumb|Buddhist monks collect alms in Si Phan Don, [[Laos]]. Giving is a key virtue in Buddhism.]]
''Śīla'' (Sanskrit) or ''sīla'' (Pāli) is the concept of "moral virtues", that is the second group and an integral part of the Noble Eightfold Path.{{sfnp|Harvey|2013|pp=83–84}} It generally consists of right speech, right action and right livelihood.{{sfnp|Harvey|2013|pp=83–84}}

One of the most basic forms of ethics in Buddhism is the taking of "precepts". This includes the Five Precepts for laypeople, Eight or Ten Precepts for monastic life, as well as rules of Dhamma (''Vinaya'' or ''Patimokkha'') adopted by a monastery.{{sfnp|Williams|2005c|p=398}}{{sfnp|McFarlane |2001|pp=187–193}}

Other important elements of Buddhist ethics include [[Dāna|giving or charity]] (''dāna''), [[Mettā]] (Good-Will), Heedfulness ([[Appamada]]), 'self-respect' ([[Hri (Buddhism)|Hri]]) and 'regard for consequences' ([[Apatrapya]]).

====Precepts====
{{main|Five precepts}}
Buddhist scriptures explain the five precepts ({{lang-pi|italic=yes|pañcasīla}}; {{lang-sa|italic=yes|pañcaśīla}}) as the minimal standard of Buddhist morality.{{sfnp|Gowans|2013|page=440}} It is the most important system of morality in Buddhism, together with the [[Patimokkha|monastic rules]].<ref name="Goodman">{{cite web |last1=Goodman |first1=Charles |title=Ethics in Indian and Tibetan Buddhism |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-indian-buddhism/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100708233552/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-indian-buddhism/ |archive-date=8 July 2010 |url-status=live |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, [[Stanford University]] |date=2017}}</ref>

The five precepts are seen as a basic training applicable to all Buddhists. They are:{{sfnp|Williams|2005c|p=398}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Bodhi Bhikkhu |url=https://archive.org/details/greatdisciplesof00nyan/|title=Great Disciples of the Buddha: Their Lives, Their Works, Their Legacy|publisher=Wisdom Publications|year=1997|isbn=978-0-86171-128-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/greatdisciplesof00nyan/page/387 387, fn. 12]}}</ref>{{sfnp|Harvey|2000|p=67}}

# "I undertake the training-precept (''sikkha-padam'') to abstain from onslaught on breathing beings." This includes ordering or causing someone else to kill. The Pali suttas also say one should not "approve of others killing" and that one should be "scrupulous, compassionate, trembling for the welfare of all living beings".{{sfnp|Harvey|2000|p=69}}
# "I undertake the training-precept to abstain from taking what is not given." According to Harvey, this also covers fraud, cheating, forgery as well as "falsely denying that one is in debt to someone".{{sfnp|Harvey|2000|p=70}}
# "I undertake the training-precept to abstain from misconduct concerning sense-pleasures." This generally refers to [[adultery]], as well as rape and incest. It also applies to sex with those who are legally under the protection of a guardian. It is also interpreted in different ways in the varying Buddhist cultures.{{sfnp|Harvey|2000|pp=71-74}}
# "I undertake the training-precept to abstain from false speech." According to Harvey this includes "any form of lying, deception or exaggeration...even non-verbal deception by gesture or other indication...or misleading statements."{{sfnp|Harvey|2000|p=75}} The precept is often also seen as including other forms of wrong speech such as "divisive speech, harsh, abusive, angry words, and even idle chatter".{{sfnp|Harvey|2000|p=76}}
# "I undertake the training-precept to abstain from alcoholic drink or drugs that are an opportunity for heedlessness." According to Harvey, intoxication is seen as a way to mask rather than face the sufferings of life. It is seen as damaging to one's mental clarity, mindfulness and ability to keep the other four precepts.{{sfnp|Harvey|2000|p=77}}

Undertaking and upholding the five precepts is based on the principle of [[ahimsa|non-harming]] ([[Pāli]] and {{lang-sa|ahiṃsa|italic=yes}}).{{sfnp|Keown|2013 |page=616}} The [[Pali Canon]] recommends one to compare oneself with others, and on the basis of that, not to hurt others.{{sfnp|Harvey |2000 |pages=33, 71 }} Compassion and a belief in [[karma (Buddhism)|karmic retribution]] form the foundation of the precepts.{{sfnp|Ratanakul |2007 |page=241 }}{{sfnp|Horigan |1996 |page=276}} Undertaking the five precepts is part of regular lay devotional practice, both at home and at the local temple.{{sfnp|Terwiel |2012 |pp=178–179}}{{sfnp|Harvey |2000 |p=80}} However, the extent to which people keep them differs per region and time.{{sfnp|Ledgerwood|2008|page=152}}{{sfnp|Harvey |2000 |p=80}} They are sometimes referred to as the ''[[śrāvakayāna]] precepts'' in the [[Mahāyāna]] tradition, contrasting them with the [[bodhisattva Precepts|''bodhisattva'' precepts]].{{sfnp|Funayama|2004 |page=105}}

====Vinaya====
{{main|Vinaya}}
[[File:Buddhist Ordination Ceremony.jpg|thumb|left|An ordination ceremony at Wat Yannawa in Bangkok. The Vinaya codes regulate the various sangha acts, including ordination.]]

Vinaya is the specific code of conduct for a ''sangha'' of monks or nuns. It includes the [[Patimokkha]], a set of 227 offences including 75 rules of decorum for monks, along with penalties for transgression, in the Theravadin tradition.{{sfnp|Gombrich|1988|p=109}} The precise content of the ''[[Vinaya Pitaka]]'' (scriptures on the Vinaya) differs in different schools and tradition, and different monasteries set their own standards on its implementation. The list of ''pattimokkha'' is recited every fortnight in a ritual gathering of all monks.{{sfnp|Gombrich|1988|p=109}} Buddhist text with vinaya rules for monasteries have been traced in all Buddhist traditions, with the oldest surviving being the ancient Chinese translations.{{sfnp|Gombrich|1988|p=93}}

Monastic communities in the Buddhist tradition cut normal social ties to family and community and live as "islands unto themselves".{{sfnp|Gombrich|1988|pp=89–92}} Within a monastic fraternity, a ''sangha'' has its own rules.{{sfnp|Gombrich|1988|pp=89–92}} A monk abides by these institutionalised rules, and living life as the vinaya prescribes it is not merely a means, but very nearly the end in itself.{{sfnp|Gombrich|1988|pp=89–92}} Transgressions by a monk on ''Sangha'' vinaya rules invites enforcement, which can include temporary or permanent expulsion.{{sfnp|Gombrich|1988|pp=101–107}}

===Restraint and renunciation===
[[File:Buddhist monk in Khao Luang-Sukhothai.JPG|thumb|Living at the root of a tree (''trukkhamulik'anga'') is one of the ''dhutaṅgas'', a series of optional ascetic practices for Buddhist monastics.]]
Another important practice taught by the Buddha is the restraint of the senses (''indriyasamvara''). In the various graduated paths, this is usually presented as a practice which is taught prior to formal sitting meditation, and which supports meditation by weakening sense desires that are a [[Five hindrances|hindrance]] to meditation.<ref name="Anālayo 2003 p. 71">Anālayo (2003). "Satipaṭṭhāna: The Direct Path to Realization," p. 71. Windhorse Publications.</ref> According to [[Bhikkhu Analayo|Anālayo]], sense restraint is when one "guards the sense doors in order to prevent sense impressions from leading to desires and discontent".<ref name="Anālayo 2003 p. 71"/> This is not an avoidance of sense impression, but a kind of mindful attention towards the sense impressions which does not dwell on their main features or signs (''nimitta''). This is said to prevent harmful influences from entering the mind.<ref name="Anālayo 2003 p. 225">Anālayo (2003). "Satipaṭṭhāna: The Direct Path to Realization," p. 225. Windhorse Publications.</ref> This practice is said to give rise to an inner peace and happiness which forms a basis for concentration and insight.<ref name="Anālayo 2003 p. 225"/>

A related Buddhist virtue and practice is renunciation, or the intent for desirelessness (''[[nekkhamma]]'').<ref>Webster, David (2004). ''"The Philosophy of Desire in the Buddhist Pali Canon,"'' p. 124. Routledge.</ref> Generally, renunciation is the giving up of actions and desires that are seen as unwholesome on the path, such as lust for sensuality and worldly things.{{sfnp|Rhys Davids|Stede|1921–1925|p=377|loc="Nekkhamma"}} Renunciation can be cultivated in different ways. The practice of giving for example, is one form of cultivating renunciation. Another one is the giving up of lay life and becoming a monastic (''bhiksu'' o ''bhiksuni'').{{sfnp|Harvey|1998|p=199}} Practicing [[celibacy]] (whether for life as a monk, or temporarily) is also a form of renunciation.{{sfnp|Harvey|2000|p=89}} Many [[Jataka tales|Jataka]] stories such as the focus on how the Buddha practiced renunciation in past lives.{{sfnp|Emmanuel|2013|p=492}}

One way of cultivating renunciation taught by the Buddha is the contemplation (''anupassana'') of the "dangers" (or "negative consequences") of sensual pleasure (''kāmānaṃ ādīnava''). As part of the graduated discourse, this contemplation is taught after the practice of giving and morality.<ref>Robert E. Buswell Jr., Donald S. Lopez Jr. (2013) "The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism," p. 18. Princeton University Press.</ref>

Another related practice to renunciation and sense restraint taught by the Buddha is "restraint in eating" or moderation with food, which for monks generally means not eating after noon. Devout laypersons also follow this rule during special days of religious observance (''[[uposatha]]'').<ref>Johnston, William M. (ed.) ''Encyclopedia of Monasticism'', Routledge, 2013, p. 467-468.</ref> Observing the Uposatha also includes other practices dealing with renunciation, mainly the [[eight precepts]].

For Buddhist monastics, renunciation can also be trained through several optional ascetic practices called ''[[Dhutanga|dhutaṅga]]''.

In different Buddhist traditions, other related [[Fasting in Buddhism|practices which focus on fasting]] are followed.

===Mindfulness and clear comprehension===
The training of the faculty called [[Sati (Buddhism)|"mindfulness"]] (Pali: ''sati'', Sanskrit: ''smṛti,'' literally meaning "recollection, remembering") is central in Buddhism. According to Analayo, mindfulness is a full awareness of the present moment which enhances and strengthens memory.<ref>Analayo (2018) ''"Satipatthana Meditation, A Practice Guide,"'' chapter 1. Windhorse Publications.</ref> The Indian Buddhist philosopher [[Asanga]] defined mindfulness thus: "It is non-forgetting by the mind with regard to the object experienced. Its function is non-distraction."<ref name="Boin-Webb, Sara 2001 p. 9">Boin-Webb, Sara. (English trans. from Walpola Rāhula's French trans. of the Sanskrit; 2001) ''"Abhidharmasamuccaya: The Compendium of the Higher Teaching (Philosophy) by Asaṅga"'', p. 9, Asian Humanities Press.</ref> According to Rupert Gethin, ''sati'' is also "an awareness of things in relation to things, and hence an awareness of their relative value".<ref>Sharf, Robert (2014), "Mindfulness and Mindlessness in Early Chan" (PDF), ''Philosophy East and West'', '''64''' (4): 933–964, {{doi|10.1353/pew.2014.0074}}</ref>

There are different practices and exercises for training mindfulness in the early discourses, such as the four ''[[Satipatthana|Satipaṭṭhānas]]'' (Sanskrit: ''smṛtyupasthāna'', "establishments of mindfulness") and ''[[Anapanasati|Ānāpānasati]]'' (Sanskrit: ''ānāpānasmṛti'', "mindfulness of breathing").

A closely related mental faculty, which is often mentioned side by side with mindfulness, is ''[[sampajañña]]'' ("clear comprehension"). This faculty is the ability to comprehend what one is doing and is happening in the mind, and whether it is being influenced by unwholesome states or wholesome ones.{{sfnp|Kuan|2007|p=50}}

===Meditation – ''Sama-amādhi'' and ''dhyāna''===
{{Main|Buddhist meditation|Samadhi|Samatha|Rupajhana}}
[[File:Kodo Sawaki Zazen.jpg|thumb|[[Kōdō Sawaki]] practicing [[Zazen]] ("sitting dhyana")]]
A wide range of meditation practices has developed in the Buddhist traditions, but "meditation" primarily refers to the attainment of ''[[Samādhi (Buddhism)|samādhi]]'' and the practice of ''[[Dhyāna in Buddhism|dhyāna]]'' (Pali: ''jhāna''). ''Samādhi'' is a calm, undistracted, unified and concentrated state of awareness. It is defined by Asanga as "one-pointedness of mind on the object to be investigated. Its function consists of giving a basis to knowledge (''jñāna'')."<ref name="Boin-Webb, Sara 2001 p. 9"/>
''Dhyāna'' is "state of perfect equanimity and awareness (''upekkhā-sati-parisuddhi'')," reached through focused mental training.<ref>Vetter, Tilmann (1988), "''The Ideas and Meditative Practices of Early Buddhism''," p. 5. BRILL.</ref>

The practice of ''dhyāna'' aids in maintaining a calm mind and avoiding disturbance of this calm mind by mindfulness of disturbing thoughts and feelings.{{sfnp|Williams|2000|pp=45–46}}{{refn|group=note|Williams refers to {{harvtxt|Frauwallner|1973|p=155}}}}

====Origins====
The earliest evidence of yogis and their meditative tradition, states Karel Werner, is found in the [[Keśin]] hymn 10.136 of the [[Rigveda]].<ref name=karelwernerkesinrv>{{cite journal |first=Karel |last=Werner |date=1977 |title=Yoga and the Ṛg Veda: An Interpretation of the Keśin Hymn (RV 10, 136) |journal=Religious Studies |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=289–302|doi=10.1017/S0034412500010076 |s2cid=170592174 }}</ref> While evidence suggests [[meditation]] was practised in the centuries preceding the Buddha,{{sfnp|Carrithers|1986|p=30}} the meditative methodologies described in the Buddhist texts are some of the earliest among texts that have survived into the modern era.{{sfnp|Gombrich|1988|p=44}}{{sfnp|Miller|1996|p=8}} These methodologies likely incorporate what existed before the Buddha as well as those first developed within Buddhism.{{sfnp|Bronkhorst|1993|pp=1–17}}{{Refn|group=note|Many ancient [[Upanishad]]s of Hinduism describe [[yoga]] and meditation as a means to liberation.{{sfnp|Collins|2000|p=199}}<ref>Mark Singleton (2010), Yoga Body: The Origins of Modern Posture Practice, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-539534-1}}, pp. 25–34</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last =White|first =David Gordon|title =Yoga, Brief History of an Idea |year =2011| publisher =Princeton University Press|pages=3–5}}</ref>}}

There is no scholarly agreement on the origin and source of the practice of ''dhyāna.'' Some scholars, like Bronkhorst, see the ''four dhyānas'' as a Buddhist invention.{{sfnp|Bronkhorst|1993|p=99}} Alexander Wynne argues that the Buddha learned ''dhyāna'' from Brahmanical teachers.{{sfnp|Wynne|2007|p={{page needed|date=October 2020}}}}

Whatever the case, the Buddha taught meditation with a new focus and interpretation, particularly through the ''four dhyānas'' methodology,{{sfnp|Bronkhorst|1993|p=Part I: page 5}} in which mindfulness is maintained.{{sfnp|Bronkhorst|1993|p=88}}{{sfnp|Gombrich|2007}} Further, the focus of meditation and the underlying theory of liberation guiding the meditation has been different in Buddhism.{{sfnp|Carrithers|1986|p=30}}{{sfnp|Norman|1997|p=29}}{{sfnp|Gombrich|1997|p=131}} For example, states Bronkhorst, the verse 4.4.23 of the ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'' with its "become calm, subdued, quiet, patiently enduring, concentrated, one sees soul in oneself" is most probably a meditative state.{{sfnp|Bronkhorst|1993|p=Chapter 9, page 86}} The Buddhist discussion of meditation is without the concept of soul and the discussion criticises both the ascetic meditation of Jainism and the "real self, soul" meditation of Hinduism.{{sfnp|Bronkhorst|1993|pp=74 (Chapter 8); 102 (Conclusion)}}

====The formless attainments====
Often grouped into the ''jhāna''-scheme are four other meditative states, referred to in the early texts as ''arupa samāpattis'' (formless attainments). These are also referred to in commentarial literature as immaterial/formless ''jhānas'' (''arūpajhānas''). The first formless attainment is a place or realm of infinite space (''ākāsānañcāyatana'') without form or colour or shape. The second is termed the realm of infinite consciousness (''viññāṇañcāyatana''); the third is the realm of nothingness (''ākiñcaññāyatana''), while the fourth is the realm of "neither perception nor non-perception".<ref name="Wayman1984p86">{{cite book|author=Alex Wayman|title=Buddhist Insight: Essays|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BNIdOsp3KIgC|date=1984|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0675-7|pages=86–89}}</ref> The four ''rupa-jhānas'' in Buddhist practice leads to rebirth in successfully better ''rupa'' Brahma heavenly realms, while ''arupa-jhānas'' leads into arupa heavens.<ref>{{cite book|author=Bruno Petzold|title=The Classification of Buddhism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iZH29oiIuIkC|year=1995|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3-447-03373-2|pages=502–503}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Lewis Hodous|author2=William E. Soothill|title=A Dictionary of Chinese Buddhist Terms: With Sanskrit and English Equivalents and a Sanskrit-Pali Index|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ecaRAgAAQBAJ|year=2003|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-79123-0|page=179}}</ref>

====Meditation and insight====
{{See also|Four Noble Truths#Substituting "liberating insight"|l1=Meditation and insight|Yoga|l2=Yoga|}}
[[File:Farsari Daibutsu.jpg|thumb|''[[Kamakura Daibutsu]]'', [[Kōtoku-in]], Kamakura, Japan]]

In the Pali canon, the Buddha outlines two meditative qualities which are mutually supportive: ''[[samatha]]'' (Pāli; Sanskrit: ''śamatha''; "calm") and ''[[vipassanā]]'' (Sanskrit: ''vipaśyanā'', insight).{{sfnp|Bodhi|2005|pp=269–270, 440 ''n''. 13}} The Buddha compares these mental qualities to a "swift pair of messengers" who together help deliver the message of ''nibbana'' (SN 35.245).{{sfnp|Bodhi|2000|pp=1251-1253}}

The various Buddhist traditions generally see Buddhist meditation as being divided into those two main types.{{sfnp|Welch|1967|p=396}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.accesstoinsight.org/theravada.html|title=What is Theravada Buddhism?|access-date=17 August 2013|work=Access to Insight|archive-date=21 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130821040134/http://www.accesstoinsight.org/theravada.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Samatha is also called "calming meditation", and focuses on stilling and concentrating the mind i.e. developing samadhi and the four ''dhyānas''. According to [[Damien Keown]], ''vipassanā'' meanwhile, focuses on "the generation of penetrating and critical insight (''paññā'')".{{sfnp|Keown|1996|pp=106–107, context: Chapter 7}}

There are numerous doctrinal positions and disagreements within the different Buddhist traditions regarding these qualities or forms of meditation. For example, in the Pali ''Four Ways to Arahantship Sutta'' (AN 4.170), it is said that one can develop calm and then insight, or insight and then calm, or both at the same time.{{sfnp|Bodhi|2005|pp=268, 439}} Meanwhile, in Vasubandhu's ''Abhidharmakośakārikā'', vipaśyanā is said to be practiced once one has reached samadhi by cultivating the four foundations of mindfulness (''smṛtyupasthāna''s).<ref>De La Vallee Poussin (trans.); Pruden, Leo M. (trans.) ''Abhidharmakosabhasyam of Vasubandhu''. Vol. III, page 925.</ref>

Beginning with comments by [[Louis de La Vallée-Poussin|La Vallee Poussin]], a series of scholars have argued that these two meditation types reflect a tension between two different ancient Buddhist traditions regarding the use of ''dhyāna,'' one which focused on insight based practice and the other which focused purely on ''dhyāna''.{{sfnp|Bronkhorst|1993}}<ref name="buddhismuskunde.uni-hamburg.de">Anālayo. [https://www.buddhismuskunde.uni-hamburg.de/pdf/5-personen/analayo/briefcriticism.pdf "A Brief Criticism of the 'Two Paths to Liberation' Theory"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200321164937/https://www.buddhismuskunde.uni-hamburg.de/pdf/5-personen/analayo/briefcriticism.pdf |date=21 March 2020 }} JOCBS. 2016 (11): 38-51.</ref> However, other scholars such as Analayo and Rupert Gethin have disagreed with this "two paths" thesis, instead seeing both of these practices as complementary.<ref name="buddhismuskunde.uni-hamburg.de"/>{{sfnp|Gethin|2001|p=xiv}}

====The ''Brahma-vihara''====
{{main|Brahmavihara}}
[[File:Phra Buddha Jinaraj - Phitsanulok.jpg|thumb|alt=gilded statue of Buddha in Wat Phra Si Rattana Mahathat, Thailand|Statue of Buddha in [[Wat Phra Si Rattana Mahathat]], [[Phitsanulok]], Thailand]]
The four immeasurables or four abodes, also called ''Brahma-viharas'', are virtues or directions for meditation in Buddhist traditions, which helps a person be reborn in the heavenly (Brahma) realm.{{sfnp|Hirakawa |1993|pp=172–174}}{{sfnp|Harvey|2013|pp=154, 326}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Carl Olson |year=2009|title=The A to Z of Buddhism|publisher=Scarecrow|isbn=978-0-8108-7073-4|page=73 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L62wiLSf0swC}}</ref> These are traditionally believed to be a characteristic of the deity Brahma and the heavenly abode he resides in.<ref>{{cite book|author=Diane Morgan |year=2010|title=Essential Buddhism: A Comprehensive Guide to Belief and Practice |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-313-38452-3|page=125 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2vgbURej-qAC&pg=PA125}}</ref>

The four ''Brahma-vihara'' are:
# Loving-kindness (Pāli: ''[[mettā]]'', Sanskrit: ''maitrī'') is active good will towards all;{{sfnp|Harvey|2013|pp=154, 326}}{{sfnp|Fowler|1999|pp=60–62}}
# Compassion (Pāli and Sanskrit: ''[[karuṇā]]'') results from ''metta''; it is identifying the suffering of others as one's own;{{sfnp|Harvey|2013|pp=154, 326}}{{sfnp|Fowler|1999|pp=60–62}}
# Empathetic joy (Pāli and Sanskrit: ''[[mudita|muditā]]''): is the feeling of joy because others are happy, even if one did not contribute to it; it is a form of sympathetic joy;{{sfnp|Fowler|1999|pp=60–62}}
# Equanimity (Pāli: ''[[upekkha|upekkhā]]'', Sanskrit: ''upekṣā''): is even-mindedness and serenity, treating everyone impartially.{{sfnp|Harvey|2013|pp=154, 326}}{{sfnp|Fowler|1999|pp=60–62}}

====Tantra, visualization and the subtle body====
{{See also|Tibetan Tantric Practice|Vajrayana#Tantra_techniques}}
[[File:Schildering uit reeks over de Sarvavid Vairocana Mandala - Licht, anoniem, ca 1799, MAS.jpg|thumb|An 18th century Mongolian miniature which depicts the generation of the Vairocana Mandala]]
[[File:Практика_туммо.jpg|thumb|A section of the Northern wall mural at the [[Lukhang]] Temple depicting ''tummo'', the three channels (''nadis'') and ''phowa'']]

Some Buddhist traditions, especially those associated with Tantric Buddhism (also known as Vajrayana and Secret Mantra) use images and symbols of deities and Buddhas in meditation. This is generally done by mentally visualizing a Buddha image (or some other mental image, like a symbol, a mandala, a syllable, etc.), and using that image to cultivate calm and insight. One may also visualize and identify oneself with the imagined deity.{{sfnp|Trainor|2004|p=87}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Luis Gomez|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zaC4CgAAQBAJ|title=Buddhism in Practice|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2015|isbn=978-1-4008-8007-2|editor=Donald S. Lopez Jr.|pages=236–243}}</ref> While visualization practices have been particularly popular in Vajrayana, they may also found in Mahayana and Theravada traditions.{{sfnp|Trainor|2004|pp=86–87}}

In Tibetan Buddhism, unique tantric techniques which include visualization (but also [[mantra]] recitation, [[mandala]]s, and other elements) are considered to be much more effective than non-tantric meditations and they are one of the most popular meditation methods.{{sfnp|Powers|2007|p=250}} The methods of ''[[Anuttarayoga Tantra|Unsurpassable Yoga Tantra]]'', (''anuttarayogatantra'') are in turn seen as the highest and most advanced. Anuttarayoga practice is divided into two stages, the ''Generation Stage'' and the ''Completion Stage.'' In the Generation Stage, one meditates on emptiness and visualizes oneself as a deity as well as visualizing its mandala. The focus is on developing clear appearance and divine pride (the understanding that oneself and the deity are one).<ref>Garson, Nathaniel DeWitt (2004). ''Penetrating the Secret Essence Tantra: Context and Philosophy in the Mahayoga System of rNying-ma Tantra'', p. 52</ref> This method is also known as deity yoga (''devata yoga''). There are numerous meditation deities (''[[yidam]]'') used, each with a mandala, a circular symbolic map used in meditation.{{sfnp|Trainor|2004|pp=88–89}}

===Insight and knowledge===
{{Main|Prajñā (Buddhism)|l1=Prajñā|Bodhi|l2=Bodhi|Kenshō|l3=Kenshō|Satori|l4=Satori|Subitism|l5=Subitism|Vipassana|l6=Vipassana}}

''Prajñā'' (Sanskrit) or ''paññā'' (Pāli) is [[wisdom]], or knowledge of the true nature of existence. Another term which is associated with ''prajñā'' and sometimes is equivalent to it is ''vipassanā'' (Pāli) or ''vipaśyanā'' (Sanskrit), which is often translated as "insight". In Buddhist texts, the faculty of insight is often said to be cultivated through the four establishments of mindfulness.{{sfnp|Kuan|2007|p=58}} In the early texts, ''Paññā'' is included as one of the "five faculties" (''[[indriya]]'') which are commonly listed as important spiritual elements to be cultivated (see for example: AN I 16). ''Paññā'' along with samadhi, is also listed as one of the "trainings in the higher states of mind" (''adhicittasikkha'').{{sfnp|Kuan|2007|p=58}}

The Buddhist tradition regards ignorance ([[Avidyā (Buddhism)|''avidyā'']]), a fundamental ignorance, misunderstanding or mis-perception of the nature of reality, as one of the basic causes of ''dukkha'' and ''samsara''. Overcoming this ignorance is part of the path to awakening. This overcoming includes the contemplation of impermanence and the non-self nature of reality,{{sfnp|Trainor|2004|p=74}}{{sfnp|Conze|2013|pp=39–40}} and this develops dispassion for the objects of [[upādāna|clinging]], and liberates a being from ''dukkha'' and ''saṃsāra''.{{sfnp|Fowler|1999|pp=49–52}}<ref>{{cite book |author1=Joseph Mitsuo Kitagawa |author2=Frank E. Reynolds |author3=Theodore M. Ludwig |title=Transitions and Transformations in the History of Religions: Essays in Honor of Joseph M. Kitagawa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p4UeAAAAIAAJ |year=1980 |publisher=Brill Academic |isbn=978-90-04-06112-5 |pages=56–58 |access-date=10 July 2016 |archive-date=11 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230111060323/https://books.google.com/books?id=p4UeAAAAIAAJ |url-status=live }}, Quote: "Suffering describes the condition of samsaric (this worldly) existence that arises from actions generated by ''ignorance'' of anatta and anicca. The doctrines of no-self and impermanence are thus the keystones of ''dhammic'' order."</ref>{{sfnp|Gethin|1998|pp=73–75, 146–159, 243}}

''Prajñā'' is important in all Buddhist traditions. It is variously described as wisdom regarding the impermanent and [[Anattā|not-self]] nature of dharmas (phenomena), the functioning of karma and rebirth, and knowledge of dependent origination.{{sfnp|Buswell|2004|pp=664–665}} Likewise, ''vipaśyanā'' is described in a similar way, such as in the ''[[Paṭisambhidāmagga]]'', where it is said to be the contemplation of things as impermanent, unsatisfactory and [[Anattā|not-self]].{{sfnp|Kuan|2007|p=59}}

===Devotion===
{{Main|Buddhist devotion}}
[[File:IMG_1016_Lhasa_Barkhor.jpg|thumb|Tibetan Buddhist prostration practice at [[Jokhang]], Tibet]]
Most forms of Buddhism "consider ''[[faith in Buddhism|saddhā]]'' (Skt ''śraddhā''), 'trustful confidence' or 'faith', as a quality which must be balanced by wisdom, and as a preparation for, or accompaniment of, meditation."{{sfnp|Harvey|2013|p=237}} Because of this devotion (Skt. bhakti; Pali: bhatti) is an important part of the practice of most Buddhists.{{sfnp|Harvey|1998|p=170}} [[Buddhist devotion|Devotional practices]] include ritual prayer, prostration, offerings, pilgrimage, and chanting.{{sfnp|Trainor|2004|pp=84–85, 105, 108–109, 112–113, 116, 165, 185}} Buddhist devotion is usually focused on some object, image or location that is seen as holy or spiritually influential. Examples of objects of devotion include paintings or statues of Buddhas and bodhisattvas, stupas, and bodhi trees.{{sfnp|Harvey|2013|pp=239-240}} Public group chanting for devotional and ceremonial is common to all Buddhist traditions and goes back to ancient India where chanting aided in the memorization of the orally transmitted teachings.{{sfnp|Harvey|2013|p=243}} Rosaries called malas are used in all Buddhist traditions to count repeated chanting of common formulas or mantras. Chanting is thus a type of devotional group meditation which leads to tranquility and communicates the Buddhist teachings.{{sfnp|Harvey|2013|pp=243-244}}

===Vegetarianism and animal ethics===
{{Main|Buddhist vegetarianism}}
[[File:Vegetarian meal at Buddhist temple (3810298969).jpg|thumb|Vegetarian meal at Buddhist temple. East Asian Buddhism tends to promote vegetarianism.]]
Based on the Indian principle of [[Ahiṃsā|ahimsa]] (non-harming), the Buddha's ethics strongly condemn the harming of all sentient beings, including all animals. He thus condemned the animal sacrifice of the Brahmins as well hunting, and killing animals for food.{{sfnp|Harvey|2000|pp=157-158}} However, early Buddhist texts depict the Buddha as allowing monastics to eat meat. This seems to be because monastics begged for their food and thus were supposed to accept whatever food was offered to them.{{sfnp|Harvey|2000|pp=156-159}} This was tempered by the rule that meat had to be "three times clean": "they had not seen, had not heard, and had no reason to suspect that the animal had been killed so that the meat could be given to them".<ref name="Phelps, Norm 2004 p. 76">Phelps, Norm (2004). ''The Great Compassion: Buddhism & Animal Rights.'' New York: Lantern Books. p. 76. {{ISBN|1-59056-069-8}}.</ref> Also, while the Buddha did not explicitly promote vegetarianism in his discourses, he did state that gaining one's livelihood from the meat trade was unethical.<ref>[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/canon/sutta/anguttara/an05-177.html Vanijja Sutta: Business (Wrong Livelihood)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051119074312/http://www.accesstoinsight.org/canon/sutta/anguttara/an05-177.html|date=19 November 2005}}</ref> In contrast to this, various Mahayana sutras and texts like the [[Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra|Mahaparinirvana sutra]], [[Śūraṅgama Sūtra|Surangama sutra]] and the [[Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra|Lankavatara sutra]] state that the Buddha promoted vegetarianism out of compassion.<ref>Phelps, Norm (2004). ''The Great Compassion: Buddhism & Animal Rights.'' New York: Lantern Books. pp. 64-65. {{ISBN|1-59056-069-8}}.</ref> Indian Mahayana thinkers like Shantideva promoted the avoidance of meat.{{sfnp|Harvey|2000|p=163}} Throughout history, the issue of whether Buddhists should be vegetarian has remained a much debated topic and there is a variety of opinions on this issue among modern Buddhists.