Augustus

== Death and succession ==
[[File:Octavianus Caesar Augustus.jpg|thumb|left|Augustus in a late 16th-century copper engraving by Giovanni Battista Cavalieri. From the book ''Romanorum Imperatorum effigies'' (1583), preserved in the Municipal Library of Trento (Italy)]]

The illness of Augustus in 23&nbsp;BC brought the problem of succession to the forefront of political issues and the public. To ensure stability, he needed to designate an heir to his unique position in Roman society and government. This was to be achieved in small, undramatic and incremental ways that did not stir senatorial fears of monarchy. If someone was to succeed to Augustus's unofficial position of power, he would have to earn it through his own publicly proven merits.{{Sfn|Gruen|2005|page=50}}

Some Augustan historians argue that indications pointed toward his sister's son Marcellus, who had been quickly married to Augustus's daughter Julia the Elder.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|pages=114–115}} Other historians dispute this since Augustus's will was read aloud to the Senate while he was seriously ill in 23&nbsp;BC,{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=115}} indicating a preference for Marcus Agrippa, who was Augustus's second in charge and arguably the only one of his associates who could have controlled the legions and held the empire together.{{Sfn|Gruen|2005|page=44}}

After the death of Marcellus in 23&nbsp;BC, Augustus married his daughter to Agrippa. This union produced five children, three sons and two daughters: [[Gaius Caesar]], [[Lucius Caesar]], [[Vipsania Julia]], [[Agrippina the Elder|Agrippina]], and [[Agrippa Postumus]], so named because he was born after Marcus Agrippa died. Shortly after the second settlement, Agrippa was granted a five-year term of administering the eastern half of the empire with the ''imperium'' of a proconsul and the same ''tribunicia potestas'' granted to Augustus (although not trumping Augustus's authority), his seat of governance stationed at [[Samos]] in the eastern [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]].{{Sfn|Gruen|2005|page=44}}{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=58}} This granting of power showed Augustus's favor for Agrippa, but it was also a measure to please members of his Caesarian party by allowing one of their members to share a considerable amount of power with him.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=58}}

Augustus's intent became apparent to make his grandsons Gaius and Lucius his heirs when he adopted them as his own children.{{Sfn|Syme|1939|pages=416-417}} He took the consulship in 5 and 2&nbsp;BC so that he could personally usher them into their political careers,{{Sfn|Scullard|1982|page=217}} and they were nominated for the consulships of AD 1 and 4.{{Sfn|Syme|1939|page=417}} Augustus also showed favor to his stepsons, Livia's children from her first marriage, Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus (henceforth referred to as Drusus) and Tiberius Claudius (henceforth Tiberius), granting them military commands and public office, though seeming to favor Drusus. After Agrippa died in 12&nbsp;BC, Tiberius was ordered to divorce his own wife, [[Vipsania Agrippina]], and marry Augustus's widowed daughter, Julia, as soon as a period of mourning for Agrippa had ended.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=116}} Drusus's marriage to Augustus's niece [[Antonia Minor|Antonia]] was considered an unbreakable affair, whereas Vipsania was "only" the daughter of the late Agrippa from his first marriage.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=116}}

Tiberius shared in Augustus's tribune powers as of 6&nbsp;BC but shortly thereafter went into retirement, reportedly wanting no further role in politics while he exiled himself to [[Rhodes]].{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=117}}{{Sfn|Gruen|2005|page=46}} No specific reason is known for his departure, though it could have been a combination of reasons, including a failing marriage with Julia{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=117}}{{Sfn|Gruen|2005|page=46}} as well as a sense of envy and exclusion over Augustus's apparent favouring of the younger Gaius and Lucius. (Gaius and Lucius joined the college of priests at an early age, were presented to spectators in a more favorable light, and were introduced to the army in Gaul.){{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|pages=117–118}}{{Sfn|Gruen|2005|pages=46–47}}

After the deaths of both Lucius and Gaius in AD 2 and 4 respectively, and the earlier death of his brother Drusus (9&nbsp;BC), Tiberius was recalled to Rome in June AD 4, where he was adopted by Augustus on the condition that he, in turn, adopt his nephew [[Germanicus]].{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=119}} This continued the tradition of presenting at least two generations of heirs.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=116}} In that year, Tiberius was also granted the powers of a tribune and proconsul, emissaries from foreign kings had to pay their respects to him and by AD 13 was awarded with his second triumph and equal level of ''imperium'' with that of Augustus.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|pages=119–120}}
[[File:Great Cameo of France CdM Paris Bab264 white background.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|The deified Augustus hovers over Tiberius and other Julio-Claudians in the [[Great Cameo of France]].]]

The only other possible claimant as heir was Agrippa Postumus, who had been exiled by Augustus in AD 7, his banishment made permanent by senatorial decree, and Augustus officially disowned him. He certainly fell out of Augustus's favor as an heir; the historian [[Erich S. Gruen]] notes various contemporary sources that state Agrippa Postumus was a "vulgar young man, brutal and brutish, and of depraved character".{{Sfn|Gruen|2005|page=49}}

On 19 August AD 14,<ref>[[Suetonius]] [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html#100 100.1.]</ref><ref>[[Cassius Dio]] [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/56*.html#30 56.30.]</ref> Augustus died while visiting [[Nola]] where his father had died. Both Tacitus and Cassius Dio wrote that Livia was rumored to have brought about Augustus's death by poisoning fresh figs.{{sfn|Tacitus|loc=1.5}}{{sfn|Cassius Dio|loc=55.22.2, 56.30}} This element features in many modern works of historical fiction pertaining to Augustus's life, but some historians view it as likely to have been a salacious fabrication made by those who had favoured Postumus as heir, or other of Tiberius's political enemies. Livia had long been the target of similar rumors of poisoning on the behalf of her son, most or all of which are unlikely to have been true.{{Sfn|Everitt|2006|pages=312–320}} Alternatively, it is possible that Livia did supply a poisoned fig (she did cultivate a variety of fig named for her that Augustus is said to have enjoyed), but did so as a means of assisted suicide rather than murder. Augustus's health had been in decline in the months immediately before his death, and he had made significant preparations for a smooth transition in power, having at last reluctantly settled on Tiberius as his choice of heir.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=123}} It is likely that Augustus was not expected to return alive from Nola, but it seems that his health improved once there; it has therefore been speculated that Augustus and Livia conspired to end his life at the anticipated time, having committed all political process to accepting Tiberius, in order to not endanger that transition.{{Sfn|Everitt|2006|pages=312–320}}

[[File:Photographs of the Mausoleum of Augustus 14 (cropped).jpg|left|thumb|The [[Mausoleum of Augustus]] restored, 2021]]
Augustus's famous last words were, "Have I played the part well? Then applaud as I exit" ({{Lang|la|"Acta est fabula, plaudite"}})—referring to the play-acting and regal authority that he had put on as emperor. An enormous funerary procession of mourners traveled with Augustus's body from Nola to Rome, and all public and private businesses closed on the day of his burial.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=123}} Tiberius and his son Drusus delivered the eulogy while standing atop two ''[[rostra]]''. Augustus's body was coffin-bound and cremated on a pyre close to [[Mausoleum of Augustus|his mausoleum]]. It was proclaimed that Augustus joined the company of the gods as a member of the Roman [[Pantheon (religion)|pantheon]].{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=124}}

Historian D. C. A. Shotter states that Augustus's policy of favoring the Julian family line over the Claudian might have afforded Tiberius sufficient cause to show open disdain for Augustus after the latter's death; instead, Tiberius was always quick to rebuke those who criticized Augustus.{{Sfn|Shotter|1966|pages=210–212}} Shotter suggests that Augustus's deification obliged Tiberius to suppress any open resentment that he might have harbored, coupled with Tiberius's "extremely conservative" attitude towards religion.{{Sfn|Shotter|1966|page=211}} Also, historian R. Shaw-Smith points to letters of Augustus to Tiberius which display affection towards Tiberius and high regard for his military merits.{{Sfn|Shaw-Smith|1971|page=213}} Shotter states that Tiberius focused his anger and criticism on [[Gaius Asinius Gallus]] (for marrying Vipsania after Augustus forced Tiberius to divorce her), as well as toward the two young Caesars, Gaius and Lucius—instead of Augustus, the real architect of his divorce and imperial demotion.{{Sfn|Shotter|1966|page=211}}