George H. W. Bush

=== Foreign affairs ===
{{main|Foreign policy of the George H. W. Bush administration}}

==== End of the Cold War ====
{{Further|Revolutions of 1989|Dissolution of the Soviet Union}}

During the first year of his tenure, Bush paused Reagan's détente policy toward the Soviet Union.{{sfn|Greene|2015|pp=110–112}} Bush and his advisers were initially divided on Gorbachev; some administration officials saw him as a democratic reformer, but others suspected him of trying to make the minimum changes necessary to restore the Soviet Union to a competitive position with the United States.{{sfn|Meacham|2015|pp=368–369}} In 1989, all the Communist governments collapsed in Eastern Europe. Gorbachev declined to send in the Soviet military, effectively abandoning the [[Brezhnev Doctrine]]. The U.S. was not directly involved in these upheavals, but the Bush administration avoided gloating over the demise of the [[Eastern Bloc]] to avoid undermining further democratic reforms.{{sfn|Herring|2008|pp=904–906}}

Bush and Gorbachev met at the [[Malta Summit]] in December 1989. Though many on the right remained wary of Gorbachev, Bush came away believing that Gorbachev would negotiate in good faith.{{sfn|Meacham|2015|pp=385–387}} For the remainder of his term, Bush sought cooperative relations with Gorbachev, believing he was the key to peace.{{sfn|Naftali|2007|pp=91–93}} The primary issue at the Malta Summit was the potential [[reunification of Germany]]. While Britain and France were wary of a reunified Germany, Bush joined German chancellor [[Helmut Kohl]] in pushing for German reunification.<ref name="heilbrunn">{{cite news|last1=Heilbrunn|first1=Jacob|title=Together Again|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1996/03/31/books/together-again.html|access-date=August 25, 2016|newspaper=The New York Times|date=March 31, 1996}}</ref> Bush believed that a reunified Germany would serve American interests.{{sfn|Meacham|2015|pp=400–402}} After extensive negotiations, Gorbachev agreed to allow a reunified Germany to be a part of NATO, and Germany officially reunified in October 1990 after paying billions of marks to Moscow.{{sfn|Greene|2015|pp=126, 134–137}}

[[File:Bush Gorba P15623-25A.jpg|thumb|Bush and [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] at the [[Helsinki Summit (1990)|Helsinki Summit]] in 1990]]

Gorbachev used force to suppress nationalist movements within the Soviet Union itself.{{sfn|Greene|2015|pp=120–121}} A crisis in Lithuania left Bush in a difficult position, as he needed Gorbachev's cooperation in the reunification of Germany and feared that the collapse of the Soviet Union could leave nuclear arms in dangerous hands. The Bush administration mildly protested Gorbachev's suppression of Lithuania's independence movement but took no action to intervene directly.{{sfn|Herring|2008|p=907}} Bush warned independence movements of the disorder that could come with secession from the Soviet Union; in a 1991 address that critics labeled the "[[Chicken Kiev speech]]", he cautioned against "suicidal nationalism".{{sfn|Herring|2008|pp=907, 913–914}} In July 1991, Bush and Gorbachev signed the [[START I|Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START I)]] treaty, in which both countries agreed to cut their strategic nuclear weapons by 30 percent.{{sfn|Greene|2015|p=204}}

In August 1991, hard-line Communists launched a [[1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt|coup]] against Gorbachev; while the coup quickly fell apart, it broke the remaining power of Gorbachev and the central Soviet government.{{sfn|Naftali|2007|pp=137–138}} Later that month, Gorbachev resigned as [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|general secretary of the Communist party]], and Russian president [[Boris Yeltsin]] ordered the seizure of Soviet property. Gorbachev clung to power as the [[President of the Soviet Union]] until December 1991, when the Soviet Union [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|dissolved]].{{sfn|Greene|2015|pp=205–206}} [[Post-Soviet states|Fifteen states]] emerged from the Soviet Union, and of those states, Russia was the largest and most populous. Bush and Yeltsin met in February 1992, declaring a new era of "friendship and partnership".<ref name="mwines1">{{cite news|last1=Wines|first1=Michael|title=Bush and Yeltsn Declare Formal End to Cold War; Agree to Exchange Visits|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/02/02/world/bush-and-yeltsin-declare-formal-end-to-cold-war-agree-to-exchange-visits.html|access-date=August 24, 2016|newspaper=The New York Times|date=February 2, 1992}}</ref> In January 1993, Bush and Yeltsin agreed to [[START II]], which provided for further nuclear arms reductions on top of the original START treaty.{{sfn|Greene|2015|pp=238–239}}

==== Invasion of Panama ====
{{Main|United States invasion of Panama}}

Through the late 1980s, the U.S. provided aid to [[Manuel Noriega]], the anti-Communist leader of Panama. Noriega had long-standing ties to United States intelligence agencies, including during Bush's tenure as Director of Central Intelligence, and was also deeply involved in drug trafficking.<ref>{{cite book| last=Dinges| first=John| title=Our Man in Panama| date=1990| url=https://archive.org/details/ourmaninpanamaho00ding| url-access=registration| pages=50, 88| publisher=Random House| location=New York City| isbn=978-0-8129-1950-9| via=Internet Archive}}</ref> In May 1989, Noriega annulled the results of a democratic presidential election in which [[Guillermo Endara]] had been elected. Bush objected to the annulment of the election and worried about the status of the [[Panama Canal]] with Noriega still in office.{{sfn|Patterson|2005|pp=226–227}} Bush dispatched 2,000 soldiers to the country, where they began conducting regular military exercises violating prior treaties.<ref name="rutgers">{{cite web|url=http://andromeda.rutgers.edu/~hbf/panama.htm|title=Panama: Background and Buildup to Invasion of 1989|access-date=April 11, 2008|author=Franklin, Jane|year=2001|publisher=Rutgers University|archive-date=July 4, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080704195428/http://andromeda.rutgers.edu/~hbf/panama.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> After Panamanian forces shot a U.S. serviceman in December 1989, Bush ordered the [[United States invasion of Panama]], known as "Operation Just Cause". The invasion was the first large-scale American military operation unrelated to the Cold War in more than 40 years. American forces quickly took control of the Panama Canal Zone and [[Panama City]]. Noriega surrendered on January 3, 1990, and was quickly transported to a prison in the United States. Twenty-three Americans died in the operation, while another 394 were wounded. Noriega was convicted and imprisoned on racketeering and drug trafficking charges in April 1992.{{sfn|Patterson|2005|pp=226–227}} Historian Stewart Brewer argues that the invasion "represented a new era in American foreign policy" because Bush did not justify the invasion under the [[Monroe Doctrine]] or the threat of Communism, but rather because it was in the best interests of the United States.<ref>{{cite book|first=Stewart|last=Brewer|title=Borders and Bridges: A History of U.S.-Latin American Relations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HPod9HcYUJ4C&pg=PA146|year=2006|publisher=Greenwood |page=146|isbn=9780275982041}}</ref>

==== Gulf War ====
{{Main|Gulf War}}
[[File:President Bush meets with General Colin Powell, General Scowcroft, Secretary James Baker, Vice President Quayle... - NARA - 186429.jpg|thumb|Bush meets with [[Robert Gates]], General [[Colin Powell]], Secretary [[Dick Cheney]] and others about the situation in the Persian Gulf, 1991]]

Faced with massive debts and low oil prices in the [[aftermath of the Iran–Iraq War]], Iraqi leader [[Saddam Hussein]] decided to conquer the country of Kuwait, a small, oil-rich country situated on Iraq's southern border.{{sfn|Greene|2015|pp=139–141}} After [[Iraqi invasion of Kuwait|Iraq invaded Kuwait]] in August 1990, Bush imposed [[Sanctions against Iraq|economic sanctions]] on Iraq and assembled a [[Coalition of the Gulf War|multi-national coalition]] opposed to the invasion.{{sfn|Patterson|2005|pp=230–232}} Some in the administration feared that a failure to respond to the invasion would embolden Hussein to attack Saudi Arabia or Israel.{{sfn|Herring|2008|pp=908–909}} [[Robert Gates]] attempted to convince [[Brent Scowcroft]] that Bush should tone down the rhetoric but Bush insisted it was his primary concern to discourage other countries from "unanswered aggression".<ref name="gates00">{{cite news |title=Robert M. Gates Oral History |url=https://millercenter.org/the-presidency/presidential-oral-histories/robert-m-gates-deputy-director-central |access-date=29 March 2024 |agency=Miller Center |publisher=Rector and Visitors of the University of Virginia}}</ref> Bush also wanted to ensure continued access to oil, as Iraq and Kuwait collectively accounted for 20 percent of the world's oil production, and Saudi Arabia produced another 26 percent of the world's oil supply.{{sfn|Patterson|2005|p=233}}

At Bush's insistence, in November 1990, the [[United Nations Security Council]] approved a resolution authorizing the use of force if Iraq did not withdraw from Kuwait by January 15, 1991.{{sfn|Patterson|2005|p=232}} Gorbachev's support and China's abstention helped ensure passage of the United Nations resolution.{{sfn|Greene|2015|pp=146–147, 159}} Bush convinced Britain, France, and other nations to commit soldiers to an operation against Iraq. He won important financial backing from Germany, Japan, South Korea, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates.{{sfn|Greene|2015|pp=149–151}} In January 1991, Bush asked Congress to approve a joint resolution authorizing a war against Iraq.{{sfn|Patterson|2005|pp=232–233}} Bush believed that the United Nations resolution had already provided him with the necessary authorization to launch a military operation against Iraq. Still, he wanted to show that the nation was united behind military action.{{sfn|Greene|2015|pp=160–161}} Despite the opposition of a majority of Democrats in both the House and the Senate, Congress approved the [[Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq Resolution of 1991]].{{sfn|Patterson|2005|pp=232–233}}

After the January 15 deadline passed without an Iraqi withdrawal from Kuwait, U.S. and coalition forces conducted a bombing campaign that devastated Iraq's power grid and communications network and resulted in the desertion of about 100,000 Iraqi soldiers. In retaliation, Iraq launched [[Scud missile]]s at Israel and Saudi Arabia, but most missiles did little damage. On February 23, coalition forces began a ground invasion into Kuwait, evicting Iraqi forces by the end of February 27. About 300 Americans and approximately 65 soldiers from other coalition nations died during the military action.{{sfn|Patterson|2005|pp=233–235}} A ceasefire was arranged on March 3, and the United Nations passed a resolution establishing a [[United Nations Iraq–Kuwait Observation Mission|peacekeeping force]] in a demilitarized zone between Kuwait and Iraq.{{sfn|Greene|2015|p=165}} A March 1991 [[Gallup (company)|Gallup]] poll showed that Bush had an approval rating of 89 percent, the highest presidential approval rating in the history of Gallup polling.{{sfn|Waterman|1996|p=337}} After 1991, the United Nations maintained economic sanctions against Iraq, and the [[United Nations Special Commission]] was assigned to ensure that Iraq did not revive its [[Iraq and weapons of mass destruction|weapons of mass destruction program]].{{sfn|Patterson|2005|p=236}}

==== NAFTA ====
{{Main|North American Free Trade Agreement}}
[[File:President Bush, Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney and Mexican President Carlos Salinas participate in the... - NARA - 186460.jpg|thumb|From left to right: (standing) President [[Carlos Salinas]], President Bush, Prime Minister [[Brian Mulroney]]; (seated) [[Jaime Serra Puche]], [[Carla Hills]], and [[Michael Wilson (Canadian politician)|Michael Wilson]] at the NAFTA Initialing Ceremony, October 1992]]

In 1987, the U.S. and Canada reached a [[free trade agreement]] that eliminated many tariffs between the two countries. President Reagan had intended it as the first step towards a larger trade agreement to eliminate most tariffs among the United States, Canada, and Mexico.{{sfn|Wilentz|2008|pp=313–314}} The Bush administration, along with the [[Progressive Conservative Party of Canada|Progressive Conservative]] Canadian prime minister [[Brian Mulroney]], spearheaded the negotiations of the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] (NAFTA) with Mexico. In addition to lowering tariffs, the proposed treaty would affect patents, copyrights, and trademarks.<ref name="fedex">{{cite web|url=http://www.fedex.com/us/customersupport/ftn/faq/nafta.html?link=4 |publisher=Federal Express|title=Frequently Asked Questions: NAFTA|access-date=April 11, 2008}}</ref> In 1991, Bush sought [[fast track authority]], which grants the president the power to submit an international trade agreement to Congress without the possibility of amendment. Despite congressional opposition led by House Majority Leader [[Dick Gephardt]], both houses of Congress voted to grant Bush fast track authority. NAFTA was signed in December 1992, after Bush lost reelection,{{sfn|Greene|2015|pp=222–223}} but President Clinton won ratification of NAFTA in 1993.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.law.duke.edu/lib/researchguides/nafta.html|title=NAFTA|publisher=Duke University|access-date=July 30, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080420094150/http://www.law.duke.edu/lib/researchguides/nafta.html |archive-date=April 20, 2008}}</ref> NAFTA was controversial for its impact on wages, jobs, and overall economic growth.<ref name="jzarroli">{{cite news|last1=Zarroli|first1=Jim|title=NAFTA Turns 20, To Mixed Reviews|url=https://www.npr.org/2013/12/08/249570005/nafta-turns-20-to-mixed-reviews|access-date=August 24, 2016|publisher=NPR|date=December 8, 2013}}</ref> In 2020, it was replaced entirely by the [[United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement]] (USMCA).