England

===Science and technology===
{{Main|List of English inventions and discoveries|Royal Society}}
[[File:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg|thumb|alt=Torso of man with long white hair and dark coloured jacket|Sir [[Isaac Newton]] is one of the most influential figures in the [[history of science]].|232x232px]]

Prominent English figures from the field of science and mathematics include Sir [[Isaac Newton]], [[Charles Darwin]], [[Robert Hooke]], [[Alan Turing]], [[Stephen Hawking]], [[Edward Jenner]], [[Francis Crick]], [[Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister|Joseph Lister]], [[Joseph Priestley]], [[Thomas Young (scientist)|Thomas Young]], [[Christopher Wren]] and [[Richard Dawkins]].

England was a leading centre of the [[Scientific Revolution]] from the 17th century.<ref>Gascoin, J. "A reappraisal of the role of the universities in the Scientific Revolution", in Lindberg, David C. and Westman, Robert S., eds (1990), ''Reappraisals of the Scientific Revolution''. Cambridge University Press. p. 248. {{ISBN|0-521-34804-8}}.</ref> As the birthplace of the [[Industrial Revolution]], England was home to many significant inventors during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Famous English engineers include [[Isambard Kingdom Brunel]], best known for the creation of the [[Great Western Railway]], a series of famous [[steamship]]s, and numerous important bridges, revolutionising public transport and modern-day engineering.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Spratt |first=H. P. |year=1958 |title=Isambard Kingdom Brunel |journal=Nature |volume=181 |issue=4626 |pages=1754–1755 |bibcode=1958Natur.181.1754S |doi=10.1038/1811754a0 |s2cid=4255226 |doi-access=free}}</ref> [[Thomas Newcomen]]'s [[Newcomen steam engine|steam engine]] helped spawn the Industrial Revolution.<ref>{{harvnb|Oakes|2002|p=214}}</ref>

The Father of Railways, [[George Stephenson]], built the first public inter-city railway line in the world, the [[Liverpool and Manchester Railway]], which opened in 1830. With his role in the marketing and manufacturing of the steam engine, and invention of modern coinage, [[Matthew Boulton]] (business partner of [[James Watt]]) is regarded as one of the most influential entrepreneurs in history.<ref>Ronald Shillingford (2010). "The History of the World's Greatest- Entrepreneurs: Biographies of Success". p.&nbsp;64–69</ref> The physician [[Edward Jenner]]'s [[smallpox vaccine]] is said to have "saved more lives&nbsp;... than were lost in all the wars of mankind since the beginning of recorded history."<ref>{{harvnb|Saunders|1982|p=13}}; {{harvnb|White|1885|p=335}}; {{harvnb|Levine|1960|p=183}}</ref>

Inventions and discoveries of the English include the [[jet engine]]; the first industrial [[spinning frame|spinning machine]]; [[Analytical engine|the first computer]] and the first [[Manchester Baby|modern computer]]; the [[World Wide Web]] along with [[HTML]]; the first successful human [[blood transfusion]]; the motorised [[vacuum cleaner]];<ref name="americanheritage">{{Cite web |last=Wohleber |first=Curt |date=Spring 2006 |title=The Vacuum Cleaner |url=http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/it/2006/4/2006_4_4.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100313170420/http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/it/2006/4/2006_4_4.shtml |archive-date=13 March 2010 |access-date=8 December 2010 |website=Invention & Technology Magazine |publisher=American Heritage Publishing}}</ref> the [[lawn mower]]; the [[seat belt]]; the [[hovercraft]]; the [[electric motor]]; [[steam engine]]s; and theories such as the Darwinian theory of [[evolution]] and [[atomic theory]]. Newton developed the ideas of [[universal gravitation]], [[Newtonian mechanics]], and [[calculus]], and [[Robert Hooke]] his eponymously named [[Hooke's law of elasticity|law of elasticity]]. Other inventions include the iron plate railway, the [[thermosiphon]], [[Tarmacadam|tarmac]], the [[rubber band]], the [[mousetrap]], [[Cat's eye (road)|"cat's eye"]] [[raised pavement marker|road marker]], joint development of the [[light bulb]], steam [[locomotive]]s, the modern [[seed drill]] and many modern techniques and technologies used in [[precision engineering]].<ref name="invent">{{Cite web |title=English Inventors and Inventions |url=http://www.english-crafts.co.uk/history/inventors.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100415212829/http://www.english-crafts.co.uk/history/inventors.htm |archive-date=15 April 2010 |access-date=5 September 2009 |publisher=English-Crafts.co.uk}}</ref>

The [[Royal Society]], formally [[The Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge]],<ref name="royalsociety.org">{{Cite web |title=The formal title as adopted in the royal charter |url=https://royalsociety.org/~/media/Royal_Society_Content/about-us/history/2012-Supplemental-Charter.pdf |website=royalsociety.org}}</ref> is a [[learned society]] and the [[United Kingdom]]'s national [[academy of sciences]]. Founded on 28 November 1660,<ref name="royalsociety.org" /> It is the oldest national scientific institution in the world.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Royal Society |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Royal-Society |access-date=24 February 2018 |last=Hunter |first=Michael}}</ref> The [[Royal Institution|Royal Institution of Great Britain]] was founded in 1799 by leading English scientists, including [[Henry Cavendish]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Caroe |first=Gwendy |title=The Royal Institution : an informal history |publisher=J. Murray |others=Final chapter by Alban |year=1985 |isbn=0719542456 |location=London}}</ref> Some experts claim that the earliest concept of a [[metric system]] was invented by [[John Wilkins]] in 1668.<ref>{{Cite news |date=13 July 2007 |title=Metric system was British |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/player/nol/newsid_6890000/newsid_6898200/6898274.stm?bw=nb&mp=wm&news=1&ms3=10 |access-date=5 September 2009}}</ref>

Scientific research and development remains important in the [[universities of England]], with many establishing [[science park]]s to facilitate production and co-operation with industry.<ref>Castells, M.; Hall, P.; Hall, P.G. (2004). ''Technopoles of the World: the Making of Twenty-First-Century Industrial Complexes''. London: Routledge. pp. 98–100. {{ISBN|0-415-10015-1}}.</ref> [[Silicon Fen|Cambridge]] is the most intensive research cluster for science and technology in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-09-20 |title=Cambridge remains most intensive science and technological cluster in the world |url=https://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/cambridge-remains-most-intensive-science-and-technological-cluster-in-the-world |access-date=2023-12-04 |website=University of Cambridge |language=en}}</ref> In 2022, the UK produced 6.3 per cent of the world's scientific research papers and had a 10.5 per cent share of scientific citations, the third highest in the world (after the United States and China).<ref>{{Cite web |title=International comparison of the UK research base, 2022 |url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1078073/international-comparison-uk-research-base-2022-accompanying-note.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305235208/https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1078073/international-comparison-uk-research-base-2022-accompanying-note.pdf |archive-date=5 March 2023 |access-date=11 March 2023}} (last checked 11 March 2023)</ref> Scientific journals produced in England include ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'', the ''[[BMJ|British Medical Journal]]'' and ''[[The Lancet]]''. The [[Department for Science, Innovation and Technology]], [[Secretary of State for Science, Innovation and Technology]], and [[Minister of State for Science, Research and Innovation]] has responsibility for science in England.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Department for Science, Innovation and Technology |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/department-for-science-innovation-and-technology |access-date=2023-02-12 |website=GOV.UK |language=en}}</ref>