Zimbabwe Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! ==History== {{Main|History of Zimbabwe}} === Pre-colonial era === {{further|Bantu expansion}} [[File:Tower, Great Zimbabwe1.jpg|thumb|upright|Towers of [[Great Zimbabwe]]]] Archaeological records date archaic human settlement of present-day Zimbabwe to at least 500,000 years ago.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Zimbabwe - Cultural life {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Zimbabwe/Cultural-life|access-date=2022-02-11|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> Zimbabwe's earliest known inhabitants were most likely the [[San people]], who left behind a legacy of arrowheads and cave paintings. Approximately 2,000 years ago, the first Bantu-speaking farmers arrived during the Bantu expansion.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sahistory.org.za/article/pre-colonial-history-sa|title=Pre-colonial history of SA|website=South African History Online|access-date=17 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160702192857/http://www.sahistory.org.za/article/pre-colonial-history-sa|archive-date=2 July 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sahistory.org.za/place/zimbabwe|title=Zimbabwe|website=South African History Online|access-date=19 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190107164147/http://www.sahistory.org.za/place/zimbabwe|archive-date=7 January 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref> Societies speaking proto-[[Shona languages]] first emerged in the middle [[Limpopo River]] valley in the 9th century before moving on to the Zimbabwean highlands. The Zimbabwean plateau became the centre of subsequent Shona states, beginning around the 10th century. Around the early 10th century, trade developed with [[Shirazi era|Arab merchants]] on the Indian Ocean coast, helping to develop the [[Kingdom of Mapungubwe]] in the 11th century. This was the precursor to the Shona civilisations that dominated the region during the 13th to 15th centuries, evidenced by ruins at [[Great Zimbabwe]], near [[Masvingo]], and by other smaller sites. The main archaeological site used a unique dry stone architecture. The Kingdom of Mapungubwe was the first in a series of trading states which had developed in Zimbabwe by the time the first European explorers arrived from Portugal. These states traded gold, ivory, and copper for cloth and glass.<ref name="autogenerated241">{{cite book|title= Historical Archaeology |last= Hall|first= Martin|author2= Stephen W. Silliman|year= 2005|publisher= Wiley Blackwell|isbn= 978-1-4051-0751-8|pages=241–44}}</ref> By 1220, the [[Kingdom of Zimbabwe]] eclipsed Mapungubwe. This Shona state further refined and expanded upon Mapungubwe's stone architecture. From {{circa}} 1450 to 1760, the [[Kingdom of Mutapa]] ruled much of the area of present-day Zimbabwe, plus parts of central Mozambique. It is known by many names including the Mutapa Empire, also known as ''Mwene Mutapa'' or ''Monomotapa'' as well as "Munhumutapa", and was renowned for its strategic trade routes with the Arabs and Portugal. The Portuguese sought to monopolise this influence and began a series of wars which left the empire in near collapse in the early 17th century.<ref name="autogenerated241" /> As a direct response to increased European presence in the interior a new Shona state emerged, known as the [[Rozvi Empire|Rozwi Empire]]. Relying on centuries of military, political and religious development, the Rozwi (meaning "destroyers") expelled the Portuguese from the Zimbabwean plateau in 1683. Around 1821 the [[Zulu people|Zulu]] general [[Mzilikazi]] of the [[Khumalo clan]] successfully rebelled against King [[Shaka]] and established his own clan, the [[Northern Ndebele people|Ndebele]]. The Ndebele fought their way northwards into the [[South African Republic|Transvaal]], leaving a trail of destruction in their wake and beginning an era of widespread devastation known as the [[Mfecane]]. When Dutch [[Boers|trekboers]] converged on the Transvaal in 1836, they drove the tribe even further northward, with the assistance of [[Tswana people|Tswana]] [[Barolong]] warriors and [[Griqua people|Griqua]] commandos. By 1838 the Ndebele had conquered the Rozwi Empire, along with the other smaller Shona states, and reduced them to [[vassal]]dom.<ref name="zimstudy">{{cite book|last= Nelson|first= Harold|title= Zimbabwe: A Country Study |pages= 1–317|publisher= The Studies | year= 1983}}</ref> [[File:Harris - Ndebelekraal.png|thumb|A Matabele [[kraal]], as depicted by [[William Cornwallis Harris]], 1836]] After losing their remaining South African lands in 1840, Mzilikazi and his tribe permanently settled in the southwest of present-day Zimbabwe in what became known as Matabeleland, establishing [[Bulawayo]] as their capital. Mzilikazi then organised his society into a military system with regimental [[kraal]]s, similar to those of Shaka, which was stable enough to repel further Boer incursions. Mzilikazi died in 1868; following a violent power struggle, his son [[Lobengula]] succeeded him. ===Colonial era and Rhodesia (1888–1964)=== {{Main|Company rule in Rhodesia|Southern Rhodesia|Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland}} [[File:Hoisting the flag at Fort Salisbury.png|thumb|The [[Union Jack]] was raised over [[Harare|Fort Salisbury]] on 13 September 1890.]] In the 1880s, European colonists arrived with [[Cecil Rhodes]]'s [[British South Africa Company]] (chartered in 1889). In 1888, Rhodes obtained a [[Rudd Concession|concession for mining rights]] from King [[Lobengula]] of the Ndebele peoples.<ref name="mining"> {{cite book | last1 = Hensman | first1 = Howard | year = 1901 | title = Cecil Rhodes: A Study of a Career | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ZebPswEACAAJ | edition = reprint | publisher = Creative Media Partners, LLC | publication-date = 2018 | pages = 106–107 | isbn = 9781376448528 | access-date = 12 July 2020 }} </ref> He presented this concession to persuade the government of the United Kingdom to grant a [[royal charter]] to the company over Matabeleland, and its subject states such as [[Mashonaland]] as well.<ref name="treaties">[[#Parsons|Parsons]], pp. 178–81.</ref> Rhodes used this document in 1890 to justify sending the [[Pioneer Column]], a group of Europeans protected by well-armed [[British South Africa Police]] (BSAP) through Matabeleland and into Shona territory to establish Fort Salisbury (present-day [[Harare]]), and thereby establish [[Company rule in Rhodesia|company rule]] over the area. In 1893 and 1894, with the help of their new [[Maxim gun|Maxim]] guns, the BSAP would go on to defeat the Ndebele in the [[First Matabele War]]. Rhodes additionally sought permission to negotiate similar concessions covering all territory between the Limpopo River and [[Lake Tanganyika]], then known as "Zambesia".<ref name="treaties" /> In accordance with the terms of aforementioned concessions and treaties,<ref name="treaties" /> mass settlement was encouraged, with the British maintaining control over labour as well as over precious metals and other mineral resources.<ref name="bsac">Bryce, James (2008). ''Impressions of South Africa''. p. 170; {{ISBN|055430032X}}.</ref> [[File:Battle of the Shangani.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Battle of the Shangani]] on 25 October 1893]] In 1895, the BSAC adopted the name [[Rhodesia (region)|"Rhodesia"]] for the territory, in honour of Rhodes. In 1898 "Southern Rhodesia" became the official name for the region south of the Zambezi,<ref>Southern Rhodesia Order in Council of 20 October 1898, which includes at section 4 thereof: "The territory for the time being within the limits of this Order shall be known as Southern Rhodesia."</ref><ref name="adopted">{{cite journal|url= http://www.nrzam.org.uk/NRJ/V3N1/V3N1.htm|title= A Country in Search of a Name|author= Gray, J. A.|year= 1956|journal= The Northern Rhodesia Journal|volume= 3|issue= 1|page= 78|access-date= 16 May 2007|archive-date= 30 April 2009|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090430203902/http://www.nrzam.org.uk/NRJ/V3N1/V3N1.htm|url-status= dead}}</ref> which later adopted the name "Zimbabwe". The region to the north, administered separately, was later termed [[Northern Rhodesia]] (present-day Zambia). Shortly after the disastrous Rhodes-sponsored [[Jameson Raid]] on the [[South African Republic]], the Ndebele rebelled against white rule, led by their charismatic religious leader, Mlimo. The [[Second Matabele War]] of 1896–1897 lasted in Matabeleland until 1896, when Mlimo was assassinated by American scout [[Frederick Russell Burnham]]. Shona agitators staged unsuccessful revolts (known as ''[[Chimurenga]]'') against company rule during 1896 and 1897.{{citation needed|date= September 2015}} Following these failed insurrections, the Rhodes administration subdued the Ndebele and Shona groups and organised the land with a disproportionate bias favouring Europeans, thus displacing many indigenous peoples.<ref name="sahistory.org.za">{{Cite web|url= https://www.sahistory.org.za/place/zimbabwe|title= Zimbabwe {{!}} South African History Online|website= www.sahistory.org.za|language= en|access-date= 3 February 2020|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190107164147/http://www.sahistory.org.za/place/zimbabwe|archive-date= 7 January 2019|url-status= dead}}</ref> [[File:Rhodesia & Nyasaland £5 1957 Obverse.png|thumb|The [[Elizabeth II|Queen]]'s portrait featured on Rhodesian banknotes and coins]] The United Kingdom annexed Southern Rhodesia on 12 September 1923.<ref>Southern Rhodesia (Annexation) Order in Council, 30 July 1923 which provided by section 3 thereof: "From and after the coming into operation of this Order the said territories shall be annexed to and form part of His Majesty's Dominions, and shall be known as the Colony of Southern Rhodesia."</ref><ref>Stella Madzibamuto v Desmond William Larder – Burke, Fredrick Phillip George (1969) A.C 645 – Authority for date of annexation having been 12 September 1923, being the date the Rhodesia (Annexation) Order in Council came into effect</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">''Collective Responses to Illegal Acts in International Law: United Nations Action in the Question of Southern Rhodesia'' by Vera Gowlland-Debbas</ref><ref>Stella Madzibamuto v Desmond William Larder – Burke, Fredrick Phillip George (1969) A.C 645</ref> Shortly after annexation, on 1 October 1923, the first constitution for the new Colony of Southern Rhodesia came into force.<ref name="ReferenceA" /><ref>Southern Rhodesia Constitution Letters Patent, 1923</ref> Under the new constitution, Southern Rhodesia became a [[self-governing colony|self-governing]] [[British Empire|British colony]], subsequent to a [[1922 Southern Rhodesian government referendum|1922 referendum]]. Rhodesians of all races served on behalf of the United Kingdom during the two World Wars in the early-20th century. Proportional to the white population, Southern Rhodesia contributed more ''per capita'' to both the [[Southern Rhodesia in World War I|First]] and [[Southern Rhodesia in World War II|Second World Wars]] than any other part of the empire, including Britain.<ref name="moorcraft" /> The [[Land Apportionment Act of 1930|1930 Land Apportionment Act]] restricted black land ownership to certain segments of the country, setting aside large areas solely for the purchase of the white minority. This act, which led to rapidly rising inequality, became the subject of frequent calls for subsequent land reform.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Machingaidze|first=Victor E.M.|date=1991|title=Agrarian Change from above: The Southern Rhodesia Native Land Husbandry Act and African Response|journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies|volume=24|issue=3|pages=557–588|doi=10.2307/219092|jstor=219092}}</ref> In 1953, in the face of African opposition,<ref name="fed">[[#Parsons|Parsons]], p. 292.</ref> Britain consolidated the two Rhodesias with [[Nyasaland]] (Malawi) in the ill-fated [[Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland|Central African Federation]], which Southern Rhodesia essentially dominated. Growing [[African nationalism]] and general dissent, particularly in Nyasaland, persuaded Britain to dissolve the union in 1963, forming three separate divisions. While [[multiracial democracy]] was finally introduced to Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland, Southern Rhodesians of European ancestry continued to enjoy [[Minoritarianism|minority rule]].<ref name="sahistory.org.za" /> [[File:British Decolonisation in Africa.png|thumb|left|[[British Empire|British]] [[Decolonisation of Africa|decolonisation]] in Africa.]] Following [[Zambia Independence Act 1964|Zambian independence]] (effective from October 1964), [[Ian Smith]]'s [[Rhodesian Front]] government in Salisbury dropped the designation "Southern" in 1964 (once ''Northern Rhodesia'' had changed its name to ''Zambia'', having the word ''Southern'' before the name ''Rhodesia'' became unnecessary and the country simply became known as ''Rhodesia'' afterwards). Intent on effectively repudiating the recently adopted British policy of "[[no independence before majority rule]]", Smith issued a [[Rhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence|Unilateral Declaration of Independence]] (UDI) from the United Kingdom on 11 November 1965. This marked the first such course taken by a rebel British colony since the [[United States Declaration of Independence|American declaration]] of 1776, which Smith and others indeed claimed provided a suitable precedent to their own actions.<ref name="moorcraft"> {{cite journal |url= http://www.historytoday.com/paul-moorcraft/rhodesias-war-independence |title= Rhodesia's War of Independence|date= 31 August 1990 |journal= History Today|volume= 40 | issue= 9 |first= Paul|last= Moorcraft |quote= [P]er head of (white) population Rhodesia had contributed more in both world wars than any other part of the empire, including the United Kingdom. ... There is little doubt now that after a few resignations here and there, the army, the Royal Navy and even the Royal Air Force (supposedly the most disaffected service) would have carried out any orders to subdue the first national treason against the Crown since the American War of Independence.}} </ref> ===Declaration of independence and civil war (1965–1980)=== {{Main|Rhodesia|Rhodesian Bush War|Zimbabwe Rhodesia|Lancaster House Agreement}} [[File:Udi2-rho.jpg|thumb|[[Ian Smith]] signing the [[Unilateral Declaration of Independence (Rhodesia)|Unilateral Declaration of Independence]] on 11 November 1965 with his cabinet in audience]] The United Kingdom deemed the Rhodesian declaration an act of rebellion but did not re-establish control by force. The British government petitioned the United Nations for [[economic sanctions|sanctions]] against Rhodesia pending unsuccessful talks with Smith's administration in 1966 and 1968. In December 1966, the organisation complied, imposing the first mandatory trade embargo on an autonomous state.<ref name="eafp">Hastedt, Glenn P. (2004) ''Encyclopedia of American Foreign Policy'', Infobase Publishing, p. 537; {{ISBN|143810989X}}.</ref> These sanctions were expanded again in 1968.<ref name="eafp" /> A civil war ensued when [[Joshua Nkomo]]'s [[Zimbabwe African People's Union]] (ZAPU) and Robert Mugabe's [[Zimbabwe African National Union]] (ZANU), supported actively by communist powers and neighbouring African nations, initiated [[Guerrilla warfare|guerrilla operations]] against Rhodesia's predominantly white government. ZAPU was supported by the [[Soviet Union]], the [[Warsaw Pact]] and associated nations such as Cuba, and adopted a [[Marxism–Leninism|Marxist–Leninist]] ideology; ZANU meanwhile aligned itself with [[Maoism]] and the bloc headed by the People's Republic of China. Smith declared Rhodesia a republic in 1970, following the results of a [[1969 Rhodesian constitutional referendum|referendum the previous year]], but this went unrecognised internationally. Meanwhile, Rhodesia's internal conflict intensified, eventually forcing him to open negotiations with the militant communists. [[File:Lancaster-House-Agreement.png|thumb|right|Bishop [[Abel Muzorewa]] signs the Lancaster House Agreement seated next to [[Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs|British Foreign Secretary]] [[Peter Carington, 6th Baron Carrington|Lord Carrington]].]] In March 1978, Smith reached an accord with three African leaders, led by Bishop [[Abel Muzorewa]], who offered to leave the white population comfortably entrenched in exchange for the establishment of a biracial democracy. As a result of the [[Internal Settlement]], [[1979 Rhodesian general election|elections were held in April 1979]], concluding with the [[United African National Council]] (UANC) carrying a majority of parliamentary seats. On 1 June 1979, Muzorewa, the UANC head, became prime minister and the country's name was changed to Zimbabwe Rhodesia. The Internal Settlement left control of the [[Rhodesian Security Forces]], civil service, judiciary, and a third of parliament seats to whites.<ref name="endsanctions">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/1/newsid_2492000/2492915.stm|title=On This Day|work=BBC News|access-date=14 December 2008 | date=1 June 1979}}</ref> On 12 June, the [[United States Senate]] voted to lift economic pressure on the former Rhodesia. Following the [[1979 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting|fifth Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting]], held in [[Lusaka]], Zambia, from 1 to 7 August in 1979, the British government invited Muzorewa, Mugabe, and Nkomo to participate in a constitutional conference at [[Lancaster House]]. The purpose of the conference was to discuss and reach an agreement on the terms of an independence constitution, and provide for elections supervised under British authority allowing Zimbabwe Rhodesia to proceed to legal independence.<ref name="chair">Chung, Fay (2006). ''Re-living the Second Chimurenga: memories from the liberation struggle in Zimbabwe'', Preben (INT) Kaarsholm. p. 242; {{ISBN|9171065512}}.</ref> With Lord Carrington, Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs of the United Kingdom, in the chair, these discussions were mounted from 10 September to 15 December in 1979, producing a total of 47 [[plenary session]]s.<ref name="chair" /> On 21 December 1979, delegations from every major interest represented reached the [[Lancaster House Agreement]], effectively ending the guerrilla war.<ref name="lancaster">Preston, Matthew (2004). ''Ending Civil War: Rhodesia and Lebanon in Perspective.'' p. 25; {{ISBN|1850435790}}.</ref><ref>Lord Soames, "From Rhodesia to Zimbabwe." ''International Affairs'' 56#3 (1980): 405–419. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2617389 online]</ref> On 11 December 1979, the Rhodesian House of Assembly voted 90 to nil to revert to British colonial status. With the arrival of [[Christopher Soames]], the new governor on 12 December 1979, Britain formally took control of Zimbabwe Rhodesia as the Colony of Southern Rhodesia. Britain lifted sanctions on 12 December and the United Nations on 16 December.<ref>Zimbabwe, May 1980/Joint Committee on Foreign Affairs and Defence, Canberra: Government Printer, 1980. p. 122.<!-- ISSN/ISBN needed --></ref><ref>{{Cite journal|first=Nicholas |last=Waddy |title=The Strange Death of 'Zimbabwe-Rhodesia': The Question of British Recognition of the Muzorewa Regime in Rhodesian Public Opinion, 1979 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=66 |issue=2 |year=2014 |pages=227–248 |doi=10.1080/02582473.2013.846935|s2cid=159650816 }}</ref> During the [[1980 Southern Rhodesian general election|elections of February 1980]], Mugabe and the ZANU party secured a landslide victory.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://richardknight.homestead.com/files/zimletmarch80.htm|title=Letter by George M. Houser, Executive Director of the American Committee on Africa (ACOA), on the 1980 independence election in Rhodesia|author=George M. Houser|access-date=1 December 2007}}</ref> [[Charles III|Prince Charles]], as the representative of Britain, formally granted independence to the new nation of Zimbabwe at a ceremony in Harare in April 1980.<ref>{{cite book |last=Smith |first=Ian |date=2008 |title=Bitter Harvest |location=London |publisher=John Blake Publishing Ltd |page=367 |isbn=978-1-85782-604-3 |author-link=Ian Smith }}</ref> ===Independence era (1980–present)=== [[File:Zimbabwe, Trends in the Human Development Index 1970-2010.png|thumb|upright=1.6|Trends in Zimbabwe's [[Multidimensional Poverty Index]], {{Nowrap|1970–2010}}]] [[President of Zimbabwe|Zimbabwe's first president]] after its independence was [[Canaan Banana]] in what was originally a mainly ceremonial role as [[head of state]]. Mugabe was the country's first prime minister and head of government.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Godwin |first1=Peter |last2=Hancock |first2=Ian |date=1995 |orig-year=1993 |title='Rhodesians Never Die': The Impact of War and Political Change on White Rhodesia, c. 1970–1980<!-- single quotes are part of the title--> |location=Harare |publisher=Baobab Books |page=312 |isbn=978-0-908311-82-8 |author-link1=Peter Godwin |author-link2=Ian Hancock }}</ref> In 1980, [[Samora Machel]] told Mugabe that Zimbabwe was the "Jewel of Africa" but added: "Don't tarnish it!".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/11/15/robert-mugabe-tarnished-jewel-zimbabwe-now-chance-shine/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/11/15/robert-mugabe-tarnished-jewel-zimbabwe-now-chance-shine/ |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Robert Mugabe tarnished the jewel that is Zimbabwe. Now is its chance to shine again|first=Boris|last=Johnson|newspaper=The Telegraph|date=15 November 2017|via=www.telegraph.co.uk}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/2003/04/10/the-jewel-of-africa/|title=The Jewel of Africa|first=Doris|last=Lessing|date=10 April 2003|magazine=[[The New York Review of Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.voazimbabwe.com/a/zimbabwe-economy-battered-over-the-years/2724325.html|title=What Happened to Zimbabwe, Once Known as The Jewel of Africa?|first=Irwin|last=Chifera|date=17 April 2015 }}</ref> New names for 32 places were gazetted on 18 April 1982<ref>{{cite web| url=https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/tr/pdf/ADA135022.pdf| title= Zimbabwe: A country study| series= Area Handbook Series| editor-first= Harold D. |editor-last= Nelson| date=August 1982|publisher = United States Government| quote=Rev. ed. of: Area handbook for Southern Rhodesia. 1975| page=xvii}}</ref> and by February 1984, there had been 42 changes, which included three rivers (Umniati/[[Munyati River|Munyati]]; Lundi/[[Runde River|Runde]]; Nuanetsi/[[Mwenezi River|Mwenezi]]), and several changes from colonial names (such as Salisbury/Harare; Enkeldoorn/[[Chivhu]]; Essexvale/[[Esigodini]]; Fort Victoria/[[Masvingo]])<ref>{{cite journal| url=https://journals.co.za/doi/pdf/10.10520/AJA02562804_270| journal=[[Africa Insight]]| title=Urban change in Zimbabwe|first=Hywel |last=Davies| volume= 14| issue= 3|date= 1984| page=163}}</ref> Opposition to what was perceived as a Shona takeover immediately erupted around Matabeleland. The Matabele unrest led to what has become known as ''[[Gukurahundi]]'' (Shona: 'the early rain which washes away the [[chaff]] before the spring rains').<ref name="watch">Nyarota, Geoffrey (2006). ''Against the Grain'', Zebra, p. 134; {{ISBN|1770071121}}.</ref> The [[5th Brigade (Zimbabwe)|Fifth Brigade]], a North Korean-trained elite unit that reported directly to Mugabe,<ref name="meredith6273" /> entered Matabeleland and massacred thousands of civilians accused of supporting "dissidents".<ref name="meredith6273">{{cite book|title=Mugabe: Power, Plunder and the Struggle for Zimbabwe|last=Meredith|first=Martin|author-link=Martin Meredith|date=September 2007|orig-year=2002|location=New York|publisher=[[Perseus Books Group|PublicAffairs]]|isbn=978-1-58648-558-0|pages=[https://archive.org/details/mugabepowerplund00mere/page/62 62–73]|url=https://archive.org/details/mugabepowerplund00mere/page/62}}</ref><ref name="hill77">{{cite book|title=The Battle for Zimbabwe: The Final Countdown |last= Hill |first=Geoff |location=Johannesburg |publisher=Struik Publishers|year=2005|orig-year=2003|isbn=978-1-86872-652-3|page=77}}</ref> Estimates for the number of deaths during the five-year ''Gukurahundi'' campaign ranged from 3,750<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.rhodesia.nl/Matabeleland%20Report.pdf|title =Report on the 1980s disturbances in Matabeleland and the Midlands, by the Catholic Commission for Justice and Peace in Zimbabwe, March 1997 – Conclusion – FINAL ESTIMATE: The figure for the dead and missing is not less than 3000. This statement is now beyond reasonable doubt. Adding up the conservative suggestions made above, the figure is reasonably certainly 3750 dead. More than that it is still not possible to say, except to allow that the real figure for the dead could be possibly double 3000, or even higher. Only further research will resolve the issue.}}</ref> to 80,000.<ref name="hill77" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newzimbabwe.com/news-17562-Gukurahundi%20killed%2080,000%20Eddie%20Cross/news.aspx|title=Gukurahundi killed 80,000: Eddie Cross|access-date=11 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161112015104/http://www.newzimbabwe.com/news-17562-Gukurahundi%20killed%2080,000%20Eddie%20Cross/news.aspx|archive-date=12 November 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> Thousands of others were tortured in military internment camps.<ref name="catholiccommission">{{cite web|url= https://archive.org/details/BreakingTheSilenceBuildingTruePeace|title=Breaking the Silence, Building True Peace|last1=Catholic Commission for Justice and Peace in Zimbabwe|last2=Legal Resources Foundation|date=1 January 1997|via=Internet Archive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= https://archive.org/details/BreakingTheSilenceBuildingTruePeace|title=Report on the 1980s Disturbances in Matabeleland & the Midlands |publisher= [[Catholic Commission for Justice and Peace in Zimbabwe]]|date=March 1997|access-date=8 August 2015}}</ref> The campaign officially ended in 1987 after Nkomo and Mugabe reached a unity agreement that merged their respective parties, creating the Zimbabwe African National Union – Patriotic Front ([[ZANU–PF]]).<ref name="meredith6273" /><ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.badley.info/history/ZANU-PF-Zimbabwe.event.html |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20081123124818/http://www.badley.info/history/ZANU-PF-Zimbabwe.event.html|archive-date=23 November 2008 | title= Chronology of Zimbabwe |publisher=badley.info|access-date=9 December 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/country_profiles/1831470.stm|title=Timeline: Zimbabwe|work=BBC News|access-date=9 December 2008 |date=15 October 2009}}</ref> [[1990 Zimbabwean general election|Elections in March 1990]] resulted in another victory for Mugabe and the ZANU–PF party, which claimed 117 of the 120 contested seats.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eisa.org.za/WEP/zim1990election.htm|title=Zimbabwe: 1990 General Elections|access-date=9 December 2008 |publisher=EISA |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205015007/http://www.eisa.org.za/WEP/zim1990election.htm|archive-date=5 December 2008 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.uz.ac.zw/publications/books/pol.html |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090902092508/http://www.uz.ac.zw/publications/books/pol.html|archive-date=2 September 2009 |title=Voting for Democracy: A Study of Electoral Politics in Zimbabwe|last=Moyo |first=Jonathon N. |publisher=University of Zimbabwe |access-date=9 December 2008}}</ref> During the 1990s, students, trade unionists, and other workers often demonstrated to express their growing discontent with Mugabe and ZANU–PF party policies. In 1996, civil servants, nurses, and junior doctors went on strike over salary issues.<ref name="l">{{cite news|url=http://africanhistory.about.com/od/zimbabwe/p/ZimbabweHist3.htm|title=A Brief History of Zimbabwe|publisher=about.com|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080108142024/http://africanhistory.about.com/od/zimbabwe/p/ZimbabweHist3.htm|archive-date=8 January 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.eisa.org.za/WEP/zimoverview5.htm |title=Zimbabwe: ZANU PF hegemony and its breakdown (1990–1999)|publisher=EISA|access-date=9 December 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205012226/http://www.eisa.org.za/WEP/zimoverview5.htm|archive-date=5 December 2008 }}</ref> The general health of the population also began to significantly decline; by 1997 an estimated 25% of the population had been infected by HIV in a pandemic that was affecting most of southern Africa.<ref name="k">{{cite news |url= http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/world/A0862066.html|title=History of Zimbabwe|work=infoplease.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.avert.org/history-hiv-aids-africa.htm|title=History of HIV & AIDS in Africa|work=[[AVERT]]|date=20 July 2015|access-date=8 August 2015}}</ref> Land redistribution re-emerged as the main issue for the ZANU–PF government around 1997. Despite the existence of a "willing-buyer-willing-seller" land reform programme since the 1980s, the minority white Zimbabwean population of around 0.6% continued to hold 70% of the country's most fertile agricultural land.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/692638.stm |title=Britain's troubles with Mugabe|work=BBC News|date=3 April 2000}}</ref> In 2000, the government pressed ahead with its [[Land reform in Zimbabwe#Fast-track land reform and violence|Fast Track Land Reform]] programme, a policy involving compulsory land acquisition aimed at redistributing land from the minority white population to the majority black population.<ref name="humanrightswatcha">{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/reports/2002/zimbabwe/ZimLand0302.pdf|title= Fast Track Land Reform in Zimbabwe|publisher= [[Human Rights Watch]]}} {{small|(175 KB)}}</ref> Confiscations of white farmland, continuous droughts, and a serious drop in external finance and other support led to a sharp decline in agricultural exports, which were traditionally the country's leading export-producing sector.<ref name="humanrightswatcha"/> Some 58,000 independent black farmers have since experienced limited success in reviving the gutted cash crop sectors through efforts on a smaller scale.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/21/world/africa/in-zimbabwe-land-takeover-a-golden-lining.html?pagewanted=all|title=In Zimbabwe Land Takeover, a Golden Lining|work=The New York Times|date=20 July 2012|access-date=21 July 2012|author=Polgreen, Lydia}}</ref> President Mugabe and the ZANU–PF party leadership found themselves beset by a wide range of international sanctions.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://register.consilium.europa.eu/pdf/en/09/st05/st05304-ad01re01.en09.pdf|title=Council Common Position renewing restrictive measures against Zimbabwe |work=Council of the European Union|date=26 January 2009}}</ref> In 2002, the nation was suspended from the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] due to the reckless farm seizures and blatant [[Electoral fraud|election tampering]].<ref name="tampering">{{cite web |url=http://www.humanrightsfirst.org/media/2003_alerts/1208.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070629145037/http://www.humanrightsfirst.org/media/2003_alerts/1208.htm |archive-date=29 June 2007 |title=Zimbabwe Suspended Indefinitely from Commonwealth|publisher=[[Human Rights First]]|date=8 December 2003|url-status=dead}}</ref> The following year, Zimbabwean officials voluntarily terminated its Commonwealth membership.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.thecommonwealth.org/press/31555/34582/35505/zimbabwes_withdrawal_from_the_commonwealth.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080705162909/http://www.thecommonwealth.org/press/31555/34582/35505/zimbabwes_withdrawal_from_the_commonwealth.htm|archive-date=5 July 2008 |title=Commonwealth website confirms Zimbabwe "terminated" its membership with effect from 7 December 2003 |publisher=Thecommonwealth.org|date=12 December 2003}}</ref> In 2001, the United States enacted the [[Zimbabwe Democracy and Economic Recovery Act of 2001|Zimbabwe Democracy and Economic Recovery Act]] (ZDERA). It came into effect in 2002 and froze credit to the Zimbabwean government.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/107/s494/text|title=Text of S. 494 (107th): Zimbabwe Democracy and Economic Recovery Act of 2001 (Passed Congress/Enrolled Bill version)|date=12 December 2001|publisher=[[GovTrack]]|access-date=29 December 2016}} {{PD-notice}}</ref> By 2003, the country's economy had collapsed. It is estimated that up to a quarter of Zimbabwe's 11 million people had fled the country. Three-quarters of the remaining Zimbabweans were living on less than one U.S. dollar a day.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.radionetherlandsarchives.org/searching-for-fuel-and-other-tales-from-zimbabwe/|title=Searching for fuel and other tales from Zimbabwe|date=1 October 2003}}</ref> Following [[Zimbabwean parliamentary election, 2005|elections in 2005]], the government initiated "[[Operation Murambatsvina]]", an effort to crack down on illegal markets and slums emerging in towns and cities, leaving a substantial section of urban poor homeless.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4188702.stm|title=Zimbabwe destruction: One man's story|date=30 August 2005 |publisher=BBC|access-date=19 December 2008}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.radionetherlandsarchives.org/driving-out-the-filth-in-zimbabwe/|title=Driving out the filth in Zimbabwe|date=31 January 2007}}</ref> The Zimbabwean government has described the operation as an attempt to provide decent housing to the population, although according to critics such as [[Amnesty International]], authorities have yet to properly substantiate their claims.<ref name="muram">{{cite web|url=http://news.amnesty.org/index/ENGAFR460152006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061010190256/http://news.amnesty.org/index/ENGAFR460152006|archive-date=10 October 2006 |title=Zimbabwe: Housing policy built on foundation of failures and lies – Amnesty International|date=9 August 2006 |access-date=30 December 2013}}</ref> [[File:Food insecurity in Zimbabwe.svg|thumb|Map showing the food insecurity in Zimbabwe in June 2008]] On 29 March 2008, Zimbabwe held a [[Zimbabwean presidential election, 2008|presidential election]] along with a [[Zimbabwean parliamentary election, 2008|parliamentary election]]. The results of this election were withheld for two weeks, after which it was generally acknowledged that the [[Movement for Democratic Change – Tsvangirai]] (MDC-T) had achieved a majority of one seat in the lower house of parliament.<ref>{{cite web |author1=Kenneth Ingham |author2=Clyde William Sanger |author3=Kenneth Bradley |title=Zimbabwe - 2008 elections and aftermath | Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Zimbabwe/2008-elections-and-aftermath |publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=15 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116000541/https://www.britannica.com/place/Zimbabwe/2008-elections-and-aftermath |archive-date=16 January 2023}}</ref> In September 2008, a [[2008–2009 Zimbabwean political negotiations|power-sharing agreement]] was reached between Tsvangirai and President Mugabe, permitting the former to hold the office of prime minister. Due to ministerial differences between their respective political parties, the agreement was not fully implemented until 13 February 2009. By December 2010, Mugabe was threatening to completely expropriate remaining privately owned companies in Zimbabwe unless "western sanctions" were lifted.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.upi.com/Top_News/World-News/2010/12/18/Mugabe-wants-sanctions-removed/UPI-84591292686762|title=Mugabe wants sanctions removed|work=United Press International|date=18 December 2010|access-date=21 August 2011}}</ref> [[File:Mugabe - Flickr - Al Jazeera English.jpg|thumb|Zimbabwean President [[Robert Mugabe]] attending the Independence Day celebrations in South Sudan in July 2011.]] In late 2008, problems in Zimbabwe reached crisis proportions in the areas of living standards, public health (with a major [[Zimbabwean cholera outbreak|cholera outbreak]] in December) and various basic affairs.<ref name="Carter">{{cite news|url= http://www.foxnews.com/printer_friendly_wires/2008Nov24/0,4675,AFZimbabwe,00.html|date=24 November 2008|title=Carter warns situation appears dire in Zimbabwe|author=Jacobson, Celean|agency=Associated Press|work=Fox News}}</ref> During this period, NGOs took over from government as a primary provider of food during this period of food insecurity in Zimbabwe.<ref>{{Cite thesis|last=Ndlovu|first=Nompilo|date=2009|title=A case study of Non-Governmental Organisations' (NGOS) responses to food insecurity in Matabeleland, Zimbabwe|publisher=University of Cape Town|type=MSocSc|url=https://open.uct.ac.za/handle/11427/8951|access-date=23 February 2019|archive-date=24 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190224001712/https://open.uct.ac.za/handle/11427/8951|url-status=dead}}</ref> A 2011 survey by [[Freedom House]] suggested that living conditions had improved since the power-sharing agreement.<ref>{{cite report|url=http://www.kubatana.net/docs/demgg/fh_changing_perceptions_political%20_110304.pdf|publisher=[[Freedom House]]|author=Booysen, Susan|date=4 March 2011|access-date=16 February 2012|title=Changing Perceptions in Zimbabwe – Nationwide Survey of the Political Climate in Zimbabwe November 2010 – January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121212043124/http://www.kubatana.net/docs/demgg/fh_changing_perceptions_political%20_110304.pdf|archive-date=12 December 2012}}</ref> The United Nations [[Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs]] stated in its 2012–2013 planning document that the "humanitarian situation has improved in Zimbabwe since 2009, but conditions remain precarious for many people".<ref>{{cite report|title=OCHA in 2012–2013: Plan and Budget: Zimbabwe|publisher=United Nations [[Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs]]|url=http://www.unocha.org/ocha2012-13/zimbabwe|date=December 2011|access-date=16 February 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120130200054/http://www.unocha.org/ocha2012-13/zimbabwe |archive-date=30 January 2012}}</ref> A new constitution approved in the [[Zimbabwean constitutional referendum, 2013]] curtails presidential powers.<ref>{{cite news|title=Zimbabweans start voting to adopt new constitution|url=https://www.reuters.com-archive-classified.eu/article/2013/03/16/us-zimbabwe-referendum-idUSBRE92F03G20130316|work=Reuters|access-date=16 March 2013|author=Dzirutwe, MacDonald |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130927163223/http://www.undp.org.zw/component/docman/doc_download/230-zimbabwe-poverty-report-2011-april-17-2013 |archive-date=27 September 2013}}</ref> Mugabe was re-elected president in the July 2013 [[2013 Zimbabwean general election|Zimbabwean general election]] which ''[[The Economist]]'' described as "rigged"<ref name =Economist072016>{{Cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21701779-imf-ready-throw-mugabe-regime-lifeline-bad-idea-bailing-out|title=Bailing out bandits|date=9 July 2016|newspaper=The Economist|issue=8997|volume=420|pages=43–44|issn=0013-0613|access-date=8 July 2016}}</ref> and the ''[[The Daily Telegraph|Daily Telegraph]]'' as "stolen".<ref name="Out of House">{{Cite news|title=Out of House and Home|last=Fletcher|first=Martin|date=7 February 2017|newspaper=The Telegraph|edition=Telegraph Magazine|page=39}}</ref> The Movement for Democratic Change alleged massive fraud and tried to seek relief through the courts.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-23591941 | title=Zimbabwe election: A guide to rigging allegations | work=BBC News | date=7 August 2013 | access-date=7 June 2016}}</ref> In a surprising moment of candour at the ZANU–PF congress in December 2014, President Robert Mugabe accidentally let slip that the opposition had in fact won the contentious 2008 polls by an astounding 73%.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://africanarguments.org/2015/04/23/as-the-house-burns-whither-the-zimbabwean-opposition-by-nicole-beardsworth/|title=As the House Burns, Whither the Zimbabwean Opposition? – By Nicole Beardsworth|date=23 April 2015}}</ref> After winning the election, the Mugabe ZANU–PF government re-instituted [[one party rule]],<ref name="Out of House" /> doubled the civil service and, according to ''The Economist'', embarked on "misrule and dazzling corruption".<ref name =Economist072016/> A 2017 study conducted by the [[Institute for Security Studies]] (ISS) concluded that due to the deterioration of government and the economy "the government encourages corruption to make up for its inability to fund its own institutions" with widespread and informal police roadblocks to issue fines to travellers being one manifestation of this.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://issafrica.org/iss-today/zimbabwes-shady-police-roadblocks-reflect-its-failing-governance|title=Zimbabwe's shady police roadblocks reflect its failing governance – ISS Africa|last=Matyszak|first=Derek|date=20 September 2017|website=ISS Africa|language=en|access-date=22 September 2017}}</ref> In July 2016 [[2016 Zimbabwe protests|nationwide protests]] took place regarding the economic collapse in the country.<ref name="BBC2016">{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-36724874 |title=Zimbabwe 'shut down' over economic collapse |access-date=7 July 2016 |work=BBC News}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thetimes.co.uk/edition/world/mugabe-at-war-with-militias-that-keep-him-in-power-kbldr7v8l|title=Mugabe at war with militias that keep him in power|last1=Raath|first1=Jan|last2=Graham|first2=Stuart|date=25 July 2016|newspaper=The Times|access-date=25 July 2016|url-access=subscription }}</ref> In November 2017, [[2017 Zimbabwean coup d'état|the army led a coup d'état]] following the dismissal of Vice-president [[Emmerson Mnangagwa]], placing Mugabe under house arrest. The army denied that their actions constituted a [[coup]].<ref name="cnn_turmoil">{{cite news |url= http://edition.cnn.com/2017/11/14/africa/zimbabwe-military-chief-treasonable-conduct/ |title= Zimbabwe in turmoil after apparent coup |first1=David |last1=McKenzie |first2=Brent |last2=Swails |first3=Angela |last3=Dewan |work=CNN |access-date=15 November 2017}}</ref><ref name="guardian_confined">{{cite news |date=15 November 2017|url= https://www.theguardian.com/world/live/2017/nov/15/zimbabwe-army-control-harare-coup-robert-mugabe-live |title= Zimbabwe's Robert Mugabe confined to home as army takes control |work=The Guardian |access-date= 15 November 2017}}</ref> On 19 November 2017, ZANU–PF sacked Robert Mugabe as party leader and appointed former Vice-president Emmerson Mnangagwa in his place.<ref>{{cite news |title=Ruling party sacks Mugabe as leader |work=BBC News |date=19 November 2017 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-42043370 |access-date=19 November 2017}}</ref> On 21 November 2017, Mugabe tendered his resignation prior to impeachment proceedings being completed.<ref name="bbc_resigns">{{cite news |title= Zimbabwe's President Mugabe 'resigns' |work= BBC News |date= 21 November 2017 |url= https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-42071488 |access-date=21 November 2017}}</ref> Although under the [[Constitution of Zimbabwe]] Mugabe should be succeeded by Vice-president [[Phelekezela Mphoko]], a supporter of [[Grace Mugabe]], ZANU–PF chief whip Lovemore Matuke stated to the [[Reuters]] news agency that Mnangagwa would be appointed as president.<ref name="bbc_resigns" /> On 30 July 2018 Zimbabwe held its [[2018 Zimbabwean general election|general elections]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.zimeye.net/2018/06/14/breaking-record-23-presidential-candidates-for-zimbabwes-july-30-polls/|title=BREAKING- Record 23 Presidential Candidates For Zimbabwe's July 30 Polls |last=Gondo |first=Talent |work=zimeye.net |language=en-US|access-date=17 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190117071635/https://www.zimeye.net/2018/06/14/breaking-record-23-presidential-candidates-for-zimbabwes-july-30-polls/|archive-date=17 January 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref> which were won by the ZANU-PF party led by Mnangagwa.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://zwnews.com/latest-news-ed-mnangagwa-beats-nelson-chamisa-to-win-zim-election-2018-zanu-mdc-alliance-zec/|title=BREAKING NEWS: Emerson Mnangagwa wins Zimbabwe Presidential Elections 2018, ZEC|last=Mabhena|first=Charles|date=2 August 2018|website=ZWNews|language=en-GB|access-date=17 January 2019}}</ref> [[Nelson Chamisa]] who was leading the main opposition party [[MDC Alliance]] contested the election results claiming voter fraud,<ref name="MutsvairoMuneri2019">{{cite book | author1 = Bruce Mutsvairo | author2 = Cleophas T. Muneri | date = 29 November 2019 | title = Journalism, Democracy, and Human Rights in Zimbabwe | publisher = Rowman & Littlefield | pages = 14– | isbn = 978-1-4985-9977-1 | oclc = 1128426040 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=NR6_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA14}}</ref> and subsequently filed a petition to the Constitution Court of Zimbabwe.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.trtworld.com/mea/zimbabwe-s-chamisa-challenges-election-result-19514 |title=Zimbabwe's Chamisa challenges election result |website=TRTWORLD |date=10 August 2018 |access-date=26 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190117070331/https://www.trtworld.com/mea/zimbabwe-s-chamisa-challenges-election-result-19514 |archive-date=17 January 2019 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The court confirmed Mnangagwa's victory, making him the newly elected president after Mugabe.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/zim-concourt-dismisses-mdcs-challenge-confirms-mnangagwa-winner/|title=Zim ConCourt dismisses MDC's challenge, confirms Mnangagwa winner – SABC News – Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader.|website=www.sabcnews.com|date=24 August 2018 |access-date=17 January 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-zimbabwe-election-court-idUSKCN1L90W2|title=Top Zimbabwe court confirms Mnangagwa's presidential election victory|date=25 August 2018|work=Reuters|access-date=17 January 2019|language=en}}</ref> In December 2017 the website Zimbabwe News, calculating the cost of the Mugabe era using various statistics, said that at the time of independence in 1980, the country was growing economically at about five per cent a year, and had done so for quite a long time. If this rate of growth had been maintained for the next 37 years, Zimbabwe would have in 2016 a GDP of US$52 billion. Instead it had a formal sector GDP of only US$14 billion, a cost of US$38 billion in lost growth. The population growth in 1980 was among the highest in Africa at about 3.5 per cent per annum, doubling every 21 years. Had this growth been maintained, the population would have been 31 million. Instead, as of 2018, it is about 13 million. The discrepancies were believed to be partly caused by death from starvation and disease, and partly due to decreased fertility. The life expectancy has halved, and deaths from politically motivated violence sponsored by the government exceed 200,000 since 1980. The Mugabe government has directly or indirectly caused the deaths of at least three million Zimbabweans in 37 years.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://newzimbabwe.com/columns-40850-The+costs+of+the+Robert+Mugabe+era/columns.aspx|title=The costs of the Robert Mugabe era|website=newzimbabwe.com|access-date=12 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180201005250/http://www.newzimbabwe.com/columns-40850-The+costs+of+the+Robert+Mugabe+era/columns.aspx|archive-date=1 February 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> According to World Food Programme, over two million people are facing starvation because of the recent droughts the country is going through.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/08/07/africa/zimbabwe-millions-starvation-intl/index.html|title=Millions in Zimbabwe facing starvation after severe droughts, UN food agency says|author=Mark Chingono and Bukola Adebayo|website=CNN|date=7 August 2019|access-date=14 August 2019}}</ref> In 2018, President Mnangagwa announced that his government would seek to rejoin [[the Commonwealth]], which is as of 2023 conducting a fact-finding mission prior to asking the [[Secretary-General of the United Nations|Secretary-General]] to issue a recommendation.<ref>{{cite news|title=Canada and others debate Zimbabwe's bid to rejoin Commonwealth|journal=[[The Globe and Mail]]|page=A4|date=7 Feb 2023|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/world/article-canada-zimbabwe-commonwealth-membership-bid/}}</ref> In August 2023, President Emmerson Mnangagwa won a second term in an outcome of the [[2023 Zimbabwean general election|election]] rejected by the opposition and questioned by observers.<ref>{{cite news |title=Zimbabwe's President Mnangagwa wins second term, opposition rejects result |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/8/27/zimbabwes-president-mnangagwa-wins-second-term-opposition-rejects-result |work=Al Jazeera |language=en}}</ref> Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. 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