Star of Bethlehem

==Explanations==

===Pious fiction===
Scholars who see the gospel nativity stories as later apologetic accounts created to establish the messianic status of Jesus regard the Star of Bethlehem as a [[pious fiction]].<ref>{{citation |last= Brown |first=Raymond E. |title=The Birth of the Messiah |publisher=Anchor Bible Reference Library |date=1993 |page=188}}.</ref><ref>Markus Bockmuehl, This Jesus (Continuum International, 2004), p. 28; {{Citation | last=Vermes | first=Géza | author-link=Géza Vermes | title=The Nativity: History and Legend | date=2006-11-02 | publisher=Penguin Books Ltd | isbn=0-14-102446-1 | page=22}}; {{Citation | last=Sanders | first=Ed Parish | author-link=E. P. Sanders | title=The Historical Figure of Jesus | date=1993 | publisher=Allen Lane | location=London | isbn=0-7139-9059-7 | page=85}}; [http://www.johnhick.org.uk/article16.html Believable Christianity]: A lecture in the annual October series on Radical Christian Faith at Carrs Lane URC Church, Birmingham, October 5, 2006.</ref> Aspects of Matthew's account which have raised questions of the historical event include: Matthew is the only one of the four gospels which mentions either the Star of Bethlehem or the Magi. Some scholars suggest that Jesus was born in [[Nazareth]], and that the Bethlehem nativity narratives were later additions to the gospels intended to present his birth as the fulfillment of prophecy.<ref>Nikkos Kokkinos, "The Relative Chronology of the Nativity in Tertullian", in Ray Summers, Jerry Vardaman and others, eds., ''Chronos, Kairos, Christos II'', Mercer University Press (1998), pp. 125–26.<br />Funk, Robert W. and the Jesus Seminar, ''The Acts of Jesus: The Search for the Authentic Deeds of Jesus'', HarperSanFrancisco, 1999, {{ISBN|0-06-062979-7}}. pp. 499, 521, 533.<br />Paul L. Maier, "Herod and the Infants of Bethlehem", in ''Chronos, Kairos, Christos II'', Mercer University Press (1998), 171.<br />For Micah's prophecy, see {{bibleverse|Micah|5:2|NKJV}}.</ref> 

According to [[Bart D. Ehrman]], the Matthew account conflicts with that given in the Gospel of Luke, in which the family of Jesus already lives in Nazareth, travel to Bethlehem for the census, and return home almost immediately.<ref>[[Bart D. Ehrman]], ''[[Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium|Jesus: apocalyptic prophet of the new millennium]]'', Oxford University Press 1999, p. 38.</ref>

[[File:L Adoration des Mages.jpg|thumb|''Adoration of the Magi'', by [[Jean Fouquet]] (15th century). The Star of Bethlehem can be seen in the top right. The soldiers and castle in the background may represent the [[Battle of Castillon]] (1453).]]

===Fulfillment of prophecy===
The ancients believed that [[As above, so below#Scholarly interpretations|astronomical phenomena were connected to terrestrial events]]. Miracles were routinely associated with the birth of important people, including the [[Hebrew]] [[patriarchs]], as well as [[Greece|Greek]] and [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] heroes.<ref name="Vermes">{{cite news |last=Vermes |first=Geza |author-link=Geza Vermes |title=The First Christmas |newspaper=History Today |volume=56 |issue=12 |pages=23–29 |date=December 2006 |url=http://www.historytoday.com/MainArticle.aspx?m=31928&amid=30235606 |access-date=2009-07-04 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071214213149/http://www.historytoday.com/MainArticle.aspx?m=31928&amid=30235606 |archive-date=2007-12-14 }}</ref>

The Star of Bethlehem is traditionally linked to the [[Star Prophecy]] in the [[Book of Numbers]]:
{{poemquote|
I see him, but not now;
I behold him, but not near;
A Star shall come out of Jacob;
A Scepter shall rise out of Israel,
And batter the brow of Moab,
And destroy all the sons of tumult.|Numbers 24:17, NKJV<ref>{{bibleverse|Numbers|24:17|NKJV}}</ref>}}

Although possibly intended to refer to a time that was long past, since the kingdom of [[Moab]] had long ceased to exist by the time the Gospels were being written, this passage had become widely seen as a reference to the coming of a Messiah.<ref name="Freed 2001 93"/> It was, for example, cited by [[Josephus]], who believed it referred to Emperor [[Vespasian]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Josephus |first=Flavius |author-link=Josephus |title=The Wars of the Jews |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/2850 |access-date=2008-06-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Lendering |first=Jona |author-link=Jona Lendering |title=Messianic claimants |url=https://www.livius.org/men-mh/messiah/messianic_claimants13.html |access-date=2008-06-05 |archive-date=2016-06-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160602013609/http://www.livius.org/men-mh/messiah/messianic_claimants13.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Origen]], one of the most influential early Christian theologians, connected this prophecy with the Star of Bethlehem:
{{quote|If, then, at the commencement of new dynasties, or on the occasion of other important events, there arises a comet so called, or any similar celestial body, why should it be matter of wonder that at the birth of Him who was to introduce a new doctrine to the human race, and to make known His teaching not only to Jews, but also to Greeks, and to many of the barbarous nations besides, a star should have arisen? Now I would say, that with respect to comets there is no prophecy in circulation to the effect that such and such a comet was to arise in connection with a particular kingdom or a particular time; but with respect to the appearance of a star at the birth of Jesus there is a prophecy of Balaam recorded by Moses to this effect: ''There shall arise a star out of Jacob, and a man shall rise up out of Israel.''<ref name="Origen2">{{cite web | last = Adamantius | first = Origen | title = Contra Celsum |url=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf04.vi.ix.i.lx.html | access-date = 2008-06-05 }}, Book I, Chapter LIX.</ref>}}

[[Origen]] suggested that the Magi may have decided to travel to Jerusalem when they "conjectured that the man whose appearance had been foretold along with that of the star, had actually come into the world".<ref name="Orign3">{{cite web | last = Adamantius | first = Origen | title = Contra Celsum | url=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf04.vi.ix.i.lxi.html}}. Book I, Chapter LX.</ref>

The Magi are sometimes called "kings" because of the belief that they fulfill prophecies in [[Isaiah]] and [[Psalms]] concerning a journey to Jerusalem by gentile kings.<ref name="Isaiah">France, R.T., ''The Gospel according to Matthew: an introduction and commentary'', p. 84. See {{bibleverse|Isaiah|60:1–7|NKJV}} and {{bibleverse|Psalms|72:10|NKJV}}.</ref> Isaiah mentions gifts of gold and incense.<ref name="Isaiah606">{{bibleverse|Isaiah|60:6|NKJV}}</ref> In the [[Septuagint]], the Greek translation of the Old Testament probably used by Matthew, these gifts are given as gold and frankincense,<ref>[http://ecmarsh.com/lxx-kjv/isaiah/isa_060.htm Isaiah 60:6] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180929135716/http://ecmarsh.com/lxx-kjv/isaiah/isa_060.htm |date=2018-09-29 }} (Septuagint).</ref> similar to Matthew's "gold, frankincense, and myrrh."<ref name="Matt211">{{bibleverse|Matthew|2:11|NKJV}}</ref> The gift of myrrh symbolizes mortality, according to Origen.<ref name="Orign3" />

While Origen argued for a naturalistic explanation, [[John Chrysostom]] viewed the star as purely miraculous: "How then, tell me, did the star point out a spot so confined, just the space of a manger and shed, unless it left that height and came down, and stood over the very head of the young child? And at this the evangelist was hinting when he said, "Lo, the star went before them, till it came and stood over where the young Child was."<ref>{{cite book |last=Schaff |first=Philip |author-link=Philip Schaff |title=St. Chrysostom: Homilies on the Gospel of Saint Matthew |publisher=Christian Literature Publishing Co. |date=1886 |location=New York |page=36 |url=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf110.VI_1.html |access-date=2009-07-04 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090207183010/http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf110.VI_1.html |archive-date=2009-02-07 }}.</ref>

===Astronomical object===
<!-- SOCK WARNING: Hutchison's books are not reliable sources. If you add them back you will be reported to WP:SPI. -->
Although the word ''magi'' ([[Koine Greek|Greek]] {{lang|grc|μαγοι}}) is usually translated as "wise men," in this context it probably means 'astronomer'/'astrologer'.{{sfn|Brown|1988|p=11}} The involvement of astrologers in the story of the birth of Jesus was problematic for the early Church, because they condemned [[astrology]] as demonic{{cn|date= July 2021|reason=Was astrology really condemned by Christians? Did not Christian used, practiced and encouraged astrology until at least Renaissance? More sources than Tester will be needed}}; a widely cited explanation was that of [[Tertullian]], who suggested that astrology was allowed 'only until the time of the Gospel'.<ref>{{cite book |last=Tester |first=S. J. |title=A History of Western Astrology |publisher=Boydell & Brewer |date=1987 |pages=111–112}}</ref>

====Planetary conjunction====
In 1614, German astronomer [[Johannes Kepler]] determined that a series of three conjunctions of the planets [[Jupiter]] and [[Saturn]] occurred in the year 7 BC.<ref name="Mosley1"/> He argued (incorrectly) that a [[Conjunction (astronomy and astrology)|planetary conjunction]] could create a [[nova]], which he linked to the Star of Bethlehem.<ref name="Mosley1"/> Modern calculations show that there was a gap of nearly a degree (approximately twice a diameter of the moon) between the planets, so these conjunctions were not visually impressive.<ref name="MarkKidger">{{cite web | last = Mark | first = Kidger | title = Chinese and Babylonian Observations | url=http://www.astrosurf.com/comets/Star_of_Bethlehem/English/Chinese.htm | access-date = 2008-06-05 }}</ref> An ancient almanac has been found in [[Babylon]] which covers the events of this period, but does not indicate that the conjunctions were of any special interest.<ref name="MarkKidger"/> In the 20th century, Professor [[Karlis Kaufmanis]], an astronomer, argued that this was an astronomical event where Jupiter and Saturn were in a triple conjunction in the constellation [[Pisces (constellation)|Pisces]].<ref>Minnesota Astronomy Review Volume 18 – Fall 2003/2004 {{cite web|url=http://www.astro.umn.edu/news/vol18.pdf |title= The Star of Bethlehem by Karlis Kaufmanis|date= 30 October 2023}}</ref><ref>Audio Version of Star of Bethlehem by Karlis Kaufmanis {{cite web |url=http://sites.google.com/site/astrologicalstarofbethlehem/ |title=The Star of Bethlehem by Karlis Kaufmanis |access-date=2011-01-03 |archive-date=2018-08-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180801055112/https://sites.google.com/site/astrologicalstarofbethlehem/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Archaeologist and [[Assyriology|Assyriologist]] [[Simo Parpola]] has also suggested this explanation.<ref name="Parpola">Simo Parpola, "The Magi and the Star," ''Bible Review,'' December 2001, pp. 16–23, 52, 54.</ref>

In 3–2 BC, there was a series of seven conjunctions, including three between Jupiter and [[Regulus]] and a strikingly close conjunction between Jupiter and [[Venus]] near Regulus on June 17, 2 BC. "The fusion of two planets would have been a rare and awe-inspiring event", according to Roger Sinnott.<ref>{{cite magazine | last = Sinnott | first =  Roger | title =  Thoughts on the Star of Bethlehem | magazine = Sky and Telescope | date =  December 1968 | pages = 384–86 }}</ref> Another Venus–Jupiter conjunction occurred earlier in August, 3 BC.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.al.com/living/index.ssf/2015/06/is_this_what_the_star_of_bethl.html| title=Is this what the Star of Bethlehem looked like? Venus, Jupiter put on a show | first =Greg | last = Garrison | date=7 March 2019 | access-date=3 February 2020 | publisher=Alabama Media Group}}</ref> While these events occurred after the generally accepted date of 4 BC for the [[Herod the Great#Death|death of Herod]], they did occur during the reign of [[Augustus|Caesar Augustus]] (who [[Luke 2|is referenced in]] the [[Gospel of Luke]]), and early Christian historians [[Eusebius]] and [[Clement of Alexandria]] calculated the birth of Jesus to 3-2 BC.<ref>{{cite book | author = Eusebius | title = [[Church History (Eusebius)]] | chapter = Book I, Chapter 5. The Time of his Appearance among Men | chapter-url = https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250101.htm | quote = 2. It was in the forty-second year of the reign of Augustus and the twenty-eighth after the subjugation of Egypt and the death of Antony and Cleopatra, with whom the dynasty of the Ptolemies in Egypt came to an end, that our Saviour and Lord Jesus Christ was born in Bethlehem of Judea […] }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | author = [[Clement of Alexandria]] | title = [[Stromata]] | chapter = Book 1, Chapter XXI: The Jewish Institutions and Laws of Far Higher Antiquity Than the Philosophy of the Greeks | chapter-url = http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/clement-stromata-book1.html | quote = And our Lord was born in the twenty-eighth year [after the [[Battle of Actium]]], when first the census was ordered to be taken in the reign of Augustus. }}</ref> Since the conjunction would have been seen in the west at sunset it could not have led the magi south from Jerusalem to Bethlehem.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kidger |first=Mark |title=Astronomical Enigmas: Life on Mars, the Star of Bethlehem, and Other Milky Way Mysteries |publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]] |location =Baltimore |date=2005 |page=63 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DKYJaBd-znAC |isbn=0-8018-8026-2}}</ref>

====Double occultation on Saturday (Sabbath) April 17, 6 BC ====
Astronomer Michael R. Molnar argues that the "star in the east"  refers to an astronomical event with astrological significance in the context of [[ancient Greek astrology]].<ref name=Weintraub>[https://www.washingtonpost.com/posteverything/wp/2014/12/26/amazingly-astronomy-can-explain-the-biblical-star-of-bethlehem/ Weintraub, David A., "Amazingly, astronomy can explain the biblical Star of Bethlehem", ''Washington Post'', December 26, 2014]</ref> He suggests a link between the Star of Bethlehem and a double occultation of Jupiter by the Moon on March 20 and April 17 of 6 BC in [[Aries (constellation)|Aries]], particularly the second occultation on April 17.<ref name="Molnar">{{citation |last=Molnar |first=Michael R. |url=http://www.eclipse.net/~molnar/index.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19991012062556/http://eclipse.net/%7Emolnar/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=1999-10-12 |title=The Star of Bethlehem: The Legacy of the Magi |publisher=Rutgers University Press |date=1999 |isbn=0-8135-2701-5 |access-date=2009-07-04 |pages=86, 89, 106–07 }}.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Eiland |first=Murray |date=2019 |others=Interview with Michael R. Molnar |title=The Star of Bethlehem, Jupiter, and imperial astrology |url=https://www.academia.edu/80960677 |journal=Antiqvvs |issue=Christmas Supplement |pages=3–6}}</ref><ref>For a similar interpretation, see Minnesota Astronomy Review Volume 18 – Fall 2003/2004 {{cite web|url=http://www.astro.umn.edu/news/vol18.pdf |title= The Star of Bethlehem by Karlis Kaufmanis|date= 30 October 2023}}</ref> [[Occultation]]s of planets by the Moon are quite common, but [[Firmicus Maternus]], an astrologer to Roman Emperor [[Constantine the Great|Constantine]], wrote that an occultation of Jupiter in Aries was a sign of the birth of a divine king.<ref name="Molnar"/><ref name="Stenger">{{cite web |last=Stenger |first=Richard |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2001/TECH/space/12/27/star.coverup/index.html |title=Was Christmas star a double eclipse of Jupiter? |date=December 27, 2001 |access-date=2009-07-04 |work=CNN}}</ref> He argues that Aries rather than Pisces was the zodiac symbol for Judea, a fact that would affect previous interpretations of astrological material. Molnar's theory was debated by scientists, theologians, and historians during a colloquium on the Star of Bethlehem at the Netherlands' [[University of Groningen]] in October 2014. Harvard astronomer [[Owen Gingerich]] supports Molnar's explanation but noted technical questions.<ref name=Govier>[http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2014/december/o-subtle-star-of-bethlehem.html Govier, Gordon. "O Subtle Star of Bethlehem", ''Christianity Today'', Vol. 58, No. 10, p. 19, December 22, 2014]</ref> "The gospel story is one in which King Herod was taken by surprise," said Gingerich. "So it wasn't that there was suddenly a brilliant new star sitting there that anybody could have seen [but] something more subtle."<ref name=Govier/> Astronomer David A. Weintraub says, "If Matthew's wise men actually undertook a journey to search for a newborn king, the bright star didn't guide them; it only told them when to set out."<ref name=Weintraub/>

There is an explanation given that the events were quite close to the Sun and would not have been visible to the naked eye.<ref name="Kidger3">{{citation |last=Kidger |first=Mark |url=http://abob.libs.uga.edu/bobk/ccc/cc120501.html |title=The Star of Bethlehem |work=Cambridge Conference Correspondence |date=December 5, 2001 |access-date=2007-07-04 |archive-date=2016-04-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160403212241/http://abob.libs.uga.edu/bobk/ccc/cc120501.html |url-status=dead }}.</ref>

====Regulus, Jupiter, and Venus====
{{synthesis|section|date=December 2023}}{{or section|date=December 2023}}
Attorney [[Frederick Larson (filmmaker)|Frederick Larson]] examined the biblical account in the Gospel of Matthew, chapter 2<ref name="Matt 2 all bg amp">[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew+2&version=AMP Matthew chapter 2 on Bible Gateway, Amplified Version with footnotes.] Retrieved on December 22, 2015.</ref>{{synthesis inline|date=December 2023}} and found the following nine qualities of Bethlehem's Star:<ref name="USA Today Lawton08">[http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/religion/2008-01-05-epiphany-star_N.htm Lawton, Kim. "Christmas star debate gets its due on Epiphany". USA Today. January 5, 2008.] Retrieved on December 19, 2015.</ref><ref name="abc13 Herzog07">[http://abc13.com/archive/5848072/ Herzog, Travis. "Did the Star of Bethlehem exist?" abc13 Eyewitness News. December 20, 2007.] Retrieved on December 19, 2015.</ref> It signified birth, it signified kingship, it was related to the Jewish nation, and it rose "in the East";<ref name="Matt 2:2 bh">[http://biblehub.com/matthew/2-2.htm Matthew chapter 2, verse 2. Bible Hub with commentaries.] Retrieved on December 19, 2015.</ref>{{synthesis inline|date=December 2023}} King Herod had not been aware of it;<ref name="Matt2:3 bh">[http://biblehub.com/matthew/2-3.htm Matthew chapter 2, verse 3. Bible Hub with commentaries.] Retrieved on December 19, 2015.</ref>{{synthesis inline|date=December 2023}} it appeared at an exact time;<ref name="Matt2:7 bh">[http://biblehub.com/matthew/2-7.htm Matthew chapter 2 verse 7. Bible Hub with commentaries.] Retrieved on December 19, 2015.</ref>{{synthesis inline|date=December 2023}} it endured over time;<ref name="Matt 2:1-10allbhswc">[http://biblehub.com/context/matthew/2-1.htm Matthew chapter 2, verses 2–10. Bible Hub with whole chapter and commentaries.] Retrieved on December 19, 2015.</ref>{{synthesis inline|date=December 2023}} and, according to Matthew,<ref name= "Matt2:9">[http://biblehub.com/commentaries/matthew/2-9.htm Gospel of Matthew chapter 2 verse 9. Bible Hub with commentaries.] Retrieved on December 19, 2015.</ref>{{synthesis inline|date=December 2023}} it was in front of the Magi when they traveled south from Jerusalem to Bethlehem, and then stopped over Bethlehem.<ref name="Ch Hd Ireland">[http://www.christianheadlines.com/news/evidence-emerges-for-star-of-bethlehems-reality-11556969.html Ireland, Michael. "Evidence emerges for Star of Bethlehem's reality". Assist News Service. Christian Headlines. October 18, 2007.] Retrieved on December 19, 2015.</ref>

Using the [[Starry Night (planetarium software)|Starry Night astronomy software]], and an article<ref name="Imprimis Chester 1993"/> written by [[astronomer]] Craig Chester<ref name="EthicsD Cliff 2009">[http://www.ethicsdaily.com/the-star-of-bethlehem-cms-15249 Vaughn, Cliff. "The Star of Bethlehem". Ethics Daily. November 26, 2009.] Retrieved on January 2, 2016.</ref> based on the work of archeologist and historian [[Ernest L. Martin]],<ref name="Chicago Tribune Chester">[http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1993-12-24/news/9312240202_1_astronomers-venus-jupiter Scripps Howard News Service. "Astronomer Analyzes The Star Of Bethlehem". ''The Chicago Tribune''. December 24, 1993.] Retrieved on December 19, 2015.</ref><ref name="Martin book">[http://www.askelm.com/star/index.asp Martin, Ernest.  1991 ''The Star that Astonished the World''. ASK Publications. Can be read for free online, for personal study only. Other uses prohibited.] Retrieved on February 12, 2016. {{ISBN|9780945657880}}</ref> Larson thinks all nine characteristics of the Star of Bethlehem are found in events that took place in the skies of 3–2 BC.<ref name="abc13 Herzog07"/><ref name="R&E Lawton 2007">[https://www.pbs.org/wnet/religionandethics/2007/12/21/december-21-2007-star-of-bethlehem/4677/ Lawton, Kim. "Star of Bethlehem". Interview with Rick Larson. PBS, Religion & Ethics Newsweekly. December 21, 2007.] Retrieved on December 19, 2015.</ref> Highlights<ref name="NBC Rao 2011">[http://www.nbcnews.com/id/45778305/ns/technology_and_science-space/#.VoP8HbUYEzN Rao, Joe. "Was the Star of Bethlehem a star, comet … or miracle?" NBC News.  Updated December 12, 2011.] Includes a brief interactive at the bottom, "What's the story behind the Star?" showing retrograde motion and the 3–2 BC planetary conjunctions. Retrieved on January 2, 2016.</ref> include a [[Triple conjunction (astronomy)|triple conjunction]] of [[Jupiter]], called the king planet, with the fixed star [[Regulus]], called the king star, starting in September 3 BC.<ref name="SP St dance coronation">[http://www.bethlehemstar.com/starry-dance/coronation/ Larson, Frederick. "A coronation" Description of Jupiter as king planet.] Retrieved December 22, 2015.</ref><ref name="BP2007">[http://www.bpnews.net/27041 Foust, Michael. Baptist Press. December 14, 2007.] Retrieved on December 19, 2015.</ref> Larson believes that may be the time of Jesus' conception.<ref name="R&E Lawton 2007"/>

By June of 2 BC, nine months later, the human gestation period, Jupiter had continued moving in its [[orbit]] around the Sun and appeared in close [[conjunction (astronomy)|conjunction]] with [[Venus]]<ref name="BP2007"/> in June of 2 BC.<ref name="SP Westward leading">[http://www.bethlehemstar.com/starry-dance/westward-leading/ Larson, Frederick. "Westward leading" Description of when Jupiter and Venus aligned.] Retrieved December 22, 2015.</ref> In [[Hebrew]] Jupiter is called {{transliteration|he|Sedeq}}, meaning "righteousness", a term also used for the [[Messiah]], and suggested that because the [[planet]] Venus represents love and fertility, so Chester had suggested astrologers would have viewed the close conjunction of Jupiter and Venus as indicating a coming new king of Israel, and Herod would have taken them seriously.<ref name="Chicago Tribune Chester"/> Astronomer Dave Reneke independently found the June 2 BC planetary conjunction, and noted it would have appeared as a "bright beacon of light".<ref name="Telegraph Reneke 08">[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/topics/christmas/3687843/Jesus-was-born-in-June-astronomers-claim.html Telegraph. "'Jesus was born in June", astronomers claim". The ''Telegraph''. December 9, 2008.] Retrieved on December 22, 2015.</ref> According to Chester, the disks of Jupiter and Venus would have appeared to touch<ref name="Imprimis Chester 1993"/> and there has not been as close a Venus-Jupiter conjunction since then.<ref name="Chicago Tribune Chester"/>

Jupiter next continued to move and then stopped in its [[apparent retrograde motion]] on December 25 of 2 BC over the town of Bethlehem.<ref name="BP2007"/>{{clarify|reason=If it stopped, it stopped from the point of view of everyone on the planet|date=December 2023}}{{unreliable source|reason=A religious website is not a reliable source for dating astronomical events|date=December 2023}} Since planets in their [[orbit]]s have a "stationary point",<ref name="Imprimis Chester 1993">[http://imprimis.hillsdale.edu/the-star-of-bethlehem/ Chester, Craig. "The Star of Bethlehem". ''Imprimis''. December 1993, 22(12).] Originally presented at Hillsdale College during fall 1992. Retrieved on December 19, 2015.</ref><ref name="Chicago Tribune Chester"/> a planet moves eastward through the stars but, "As it approaches the opposite point in the sky from the sun, it appears to slow, come to a full stop, and move backward (westward) through the sky for some weeks. Again it slows, stops, and resumes its eastward course," said Chester.<ref name="Imprimis Chester 1993"/> The date of December 25 that Jupiter appeared to stop while in [[Retrograde and prograde motion|retrograde]] took place in the season of [[Hanukkah]],<ref name="Imprimis Chester 1993"/> and is the date later chosen to celebrate [[Christmas]].<ref name="BP2007"/><ref name="Hist Christmas 12-25">[http://www.history.com/topics/christmas/history-of-christmas "History of Christmas". History.] Retrieved on December 22, 2015.</ref>

====Heliacal rising====
[[File:Beit Alpha.jpg|thumb|A [[zodiac]] from a 6th-century mosaic at a synagogue in [[Beit Alpha]], Israel]]
The Magi told Herod that they saw the star "in the East,"<ref>{{bibleverse|Matthew|2:2|NKJV}}</ref> or according to some translations, "at its rising",<ref name="rising">[http://bible.oremus.org/?ql=119069890 Matthew 2:2]. [[New Revised Standard Version]].</ref> which may imply the routine appearance of a constellation, or an [[Asterism (astronomy)|asterism]]. One theory interprets the phrase in Matthew 2:2, "in the east," as an astrological term concerning a "[[heliacal rising]]." This translation was proposed by Edersheim<ref>Edersheim, Alfred. The Life and times of Jesus the Messiah. Peabody, (MA: Hendrickson, 1993), several references, chapter 8.</ref> and Heinrich Voigt, among others.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Adair |first=Aaron |date=2013 |title=The Star of Bethlehem: A Skeptical View (Kindle Edition – location 1304) |publisher=Onus Books |isbn=978-0956694867}}</ref> The view was rejected by the philologist [[Franz Boll (philologist)|Franz Boll]] (1867–1924). Two modern translators of ancient astrological texts insist that the text does not use the technical terms for either a heliacal or an acronycal rising of a star. However, one concedes that Matthew may have used layman's terms for a rising.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Roberts |first=Courtney |date=2007 |title=The Star of the Magi |publisher=Career Press |pages=120–21 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=9z_0nQEACAAJ&q=editions:-hQLa5bJEgsC |isbn=978-1564149626}}</ref>

====Comet====
Other writers highly suggest that the star was a [[comet]].<ref name="MarkKidger"/> [[Halley's Comet]] was visible in 12 BC and another object, possibly a comet or [[nova]], was seen by Chinese and Korean stargazers in about 5 BC.<ref name="MarkKidger"/><ref>Colin Humphreys, [http://www.asa3.org/ASA/topics/Astronomy-Cosmology/S&CB%2010-93Humphreys.html 'The Star of Bethlehem'], in ''Science and Christian Belief'' 5 (1995), 83–101.</ref> This object was observed for over seventy days, possibly with no movement recorded.<ref name="MarkKidger"/> Ancient writers described comets as "hanging over" specific cities, just as the Star of Bethlehem was said to have "stood over" the "place" where Jesus was (the town of Bethlehem).<ref name="Jenkins">{{cite news |last=Jenkins |first=R.M. |url=http://www.bristolastrosoc.org.uk/www/media/Publications_BAS_Documents/the_star_of_bethlehem.pdf |title=The Star of Bethlehem and the Comet of AD 66 |work=Journal of the British Astronomy Association |date=June 2004 |number=114 |pages=336–43 |access-date=2016-12-23 |archive-date=2018-10-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181005222753/http://www.bristolastrosoc.org.uk/www/media/Publications_BAS_Documents/the_star_of_bethlehem.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> However, this is generally thought unlikely as in ancient times comets were generally seen as bad omens.<ref>Mark Kidger, ''Astronomical Enigmas: Life on Mars, the Star of Bethlehem, and Other Milky Way Mysteries'', (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005), page 61.</ref> The comet explanation has been recently promoted by Colin Nicholl. His theory involves a hypothetical comet which could have appeared in 6 BC.<ref>Colin R. Nicholl. 2015. ''The Great Christ Comet: Revealing the True Star of Bethlehem.'' Crossway.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2015/december/what-kind-of-astronomical-marvel-was-star-of-bethlehem.html|title=What Kind of Astronomical Marvel was the Star of ... – Christianity Today|author=Interview Greg Cootsona|work=ChristianityToday.com|date=23 November 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thegospelcoalition.org/article/book-reviews-great-christ-comet-revealing-the-true-star-of-bethlehem|title=The Great Christ Comet: Revealing the True Star of Bethlehem|author=Guillermo Gonzalez|work=TGC – The Gospel Coalition|date=16 June 2017 }}</ref>

====Supernova====
A recent (2005) hypothesis advanced by [[Frank Tipler]] is that the star of Bethlehem was a [[supernova]] or [[hypernova]] occurring in the nearby [[Andromeda Galaxy]].<ref name=tipler>{{cite journal | author=[[Frank J. Tipler]] |date=2005 | title=The Star of Bethlehem: A Type Ia/Ic Supernova in the Andromeda Galaxy?  | url=http://math.tulane.edu/~tipler/starofbethlehem.pdf  | journal=[[The Observatory (journal)|The Observatory]] | volume=125 |pages=168–74 | bibcode=2005Obs...125..168T}}</ref> Although it is difficult to detect a supernova remnant in another galaxy, or obtain an accurate date of when it occurred, supernova remnants have been detected in Andromeda.<ref>{{cite journal | title=ROSAT HRI Observations of M31 Supernova Remnants |author1=Eugene A. Magnier |author2=Francis A. Primini |author3=Saskia Prins |author4=Jan van Paradijs |author5=Walter H. G. Lewin | date=1997 | journal=The Astrophysical Journal | volume= 490 | issue=2 | pages=649–52 | doi=10.1086/304917|bibcode=1997ApJ...490..649M |s2cid=54162850 |url=https://pure.uva.nl/ws/files/1202169/2567_25290y.pdf }}</ref>

Another theory is the more likely supernova of February 23 4 BC, which is now known as [[PSR 1913+16]] or the Hulse-Taylor Pulsar. It is said to have appeared in the constellation of [[Aquila (constellation)|Aquila]], near the intersection of the winter [[colure]] and the equator of date. The nova was "recorded in China, Korea, and Palestine" (probably meaning the Biblical account).<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//full/1978JRASC..72...65M/0000066.000.html|bibcode = 1978JRASC..72...65M|title = The Christmas Star as a Supernova in Aquila|last1 = Morehouse|first1 = A. J.|journal = Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada|year = 1978|volume = 72|page = 65}}</ref>

A nova or comet was recorded in China in 4 BC. "In the reign of Ai-ti, in the third year of the Chien-p'ing period. In the third month, day {{transliteration|zh|chi-yu}}, there was a rising {{transliteration|zh|po}} at Hoku" (Han Shu, The History of the Former Han Dynasty). The date is equivalent to April 24, 4 BC. This identifies the date when it was first observed in China. It was also recorded in Korea: "In the fifty-fourth year of Hyokkose Wang, in the spring, second month, day {{transliteration|ko|chi-yu}}, a {{transliteration|ko|po-hsing}} appeared at Hoku" (Samguk Sagi, The Historical Record of the Three Kingdoms). The Korean text may have been corrupted because Ho (1962) points out that "the {{transliteration|ko|chi-yu}} day did not fall in the second month that year but on the first month" (February 23) and on the third month (April 24). The original must have read "day {{transliteration|ko|chi-yu}}, first month" (February 23) or "day {{transliteration|ko|chi-yu}}, third month" (April 24). The latter would coincide with the date in the Chinese records although professor Ho suggests the date was "probably February 23, 4 BC."<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?bibcode=2005JRASC..99...87M&db_key=AST&page_ind=1&data_type=GIF&type=SCREEN_VIEW&classic=YES|bibcode = 2005JRASC..99...87M|title = The Star on Roman Coins|last1 = McIvor|first1 = Robert S.|journal = Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada|year = 2005|volume = 99|issue = 3|page = 87}}</ref>