Racial segregation

=== Imperial China ===

====Tang dynasty====
[[File:Sogdian New Year Festival, Northern Qi.jpg|thumb|Ethnic Han were banned from forming relationships with Sogdians, depicted here on the [[Anyang funerary bed]], circa 567/573.]]
Several laws which enforced racial segregation of foreigners from Chinese were passed by the [[Han Chinese]] during the [[Tang dynasty]].{{citation needed|date=June 2020}} In 779, the Tang dynasty issued an edict which forced [[Uyghur Khaganate#Successors|Uyghurs]] to wear their ethnic dress, stopped them from marrying Chinese females, and banned them from pretending to be Chinese.<ref name="Edward H. Schafer 1963 22">{{Cite book |last=Edward H. Schafer |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jqAGIL02BWQC&q=chinese+uighurs+779+edict+lure+canton+836+foreigners+and+chinese+lu+governor+forbade+marriages+forced+separate&pg=PA22 |title=The golden peaches of Samarkand: a study of Tʻang exotics |publisher=University of California Press |year=1963 |isbn=978-0-520-05462-2 |page=22 |access-date=28 June 2010}}</ref> In 836, when Lu Chun was appointed as governor of [[Guangzhou|Canton]], he was disgusted to find Chinese living with foreigners and intermarriage between Chinese and foreigners. Lu enforced separation, banning interracial marriages, and made it illegal for foreigners to own property. Lu Chun believed his principles were just and upright.<ref name="Edward H. Schafer 1963 22" /> The 836 law specifically banned Chinese from forming relationships with "Dark peoples" or "People of colour", which was used to describe foreigners, such as "[[Iranians in China|Iranians]], [[Sogdia]]ns, [[Arabs]], [[Indians in China|Indians]], [[Malaysian diaspora|Malays]], [[Sumatra]]ns", among others.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mark Edward Lewis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vpgVvAh2_EsC&q=836+law+tang+dynasty&pg=PA170 |title=China's cosmopolitan empire: the Tang dynasty |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-674-03306-1 |page=170 |access-date=28 October 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Jacques Gernet |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern |title=A history of Chinese civilization |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-521-49781-7 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern/page/294 294] |quote=836 decree chinese people of colour. |access-date=28 October 2010 |url-access=registration}}</ref>

==== Qing dynasty ====
[[File:康熙帝南巡图卷，治黃河.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Han and Manchu people depicted together in separate styles of clothing]]

{{Main|Eight Banners}}

The [[Qing dynasty]] was founded not by Han Chinese, who form the majority of the Chinese population, but by [[Manchu people|Manchus]], who are today an ethnic minority of China. The Manchus were keenly aware of their minority status, however, it was only later in the dynasty that they banned intermarriage.

Han defectors played a massive role in the Qing conquest of China. Han Chinese Generals of the [[Ming dynasty|Ming Dynasty]] who defected to the Manchu were often [[Heqin#Qing dynasty|given women from the Imperial Aisin Gioro family in marriage]] while the ordinary soldiers who defected were given non-royal Manchu women as wives. The Manchu leader [[Nurhaci]] married one of his granddaughters to the Ming General [[Li Yongfang]] after he surrendered [[Fushun]] in [[Liaoning]] to the Manchu in 1618.<ref name="ed. Walthall 2008">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QXHbhsfaJAYC&pg=PA148 |title=ed. Walthall |year=2008 |page=148|isbn=9780520254442 |last1=Walthall |first1=Anne |publisher=University of California Press }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ORBmFSFcJKoC&pg=PA79 |title=Wakeman |year=1977 |page=79|isbn=9780029336809 |last1=Wakeman |first1=Frederic |publisher=Simon and Schuster }}</ref> [[Jurchen people|Jurchen]] (Manchu) women married most of the Han Chinese defectors in Liaodong.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ai1_5IHQ9vsC&pg=PA95 |title=Crossley |year=2010 |page=95|isbn=9780674054097 |last1=Kagan |first1=Kimberly |publisher=Harvard University Press }}</ref> Aisin Gioro women were married to the sons of the Han Chinese Generals [[Sun Sike]] (Sun Ssu-k'o), [[Geng Jimao]] (Keng Chi-mao), [[Shang Kexi]] (Shang K'o-hsi), and [[Wu Sangui]] (Wu San-kuei).<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gAIcwz3V_JsC&pg=PA179 |title=eds. Watson, Ebrey |year=1991 |pages=179–180|isbn=9780520071247 |last1=Watson |first1=Rubie S. |last2=Ebrey |first2=Patricia Buckley |publisher=University of California Press }}</ref>

A mass marriage of Han Chinese officers and officials to Manchu women numbering 1,000 couples was arranged by Prince Yoto and [[Hongtaiji]] in 1632 to promote harmony between the two ethnic groups.<ref name="ed. Walthall 2008" />

[[Geng Zhongming]], a Han bannerman, was awarded the title of Prince Jingnan, and his son Geng Jingmao managed to have both his sons [[Geng Jingzhong]] and Geng Zhaozhong become court attendants under [[Shunzhi Emperor|Shunzhi]] and marry Aisin Gioro women, with Haoge's (a son of Hong Taiji) daughter marrying Geng Jingzhong and Prince Abatai's (Hong Taiji) granddaughter marrying Geng Zhaozhong.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Wakeman, Frederic Jr.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8nXLwSG2O8AC&pg=PA1017 |title=The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China |date=1 January 1985 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=9780520048041 |via=Google Books}}</ref>

The Qing differentiated between Han Bannermen and ordinary Han civilians. Han Bannermen were made out of Han Chinese who defected to the Qing up to 1644 and joined the Eight Banners, giving them social and legal privileges in addition to being acculturated to Manchu culture. So many Han defected to the Qing and swelled the ranks of the Eight Banners that ethnic Manchus became a minority within the Banners, making up only 16% in 1648, with Han Bannermen dominating at 75%.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cpfgQNWXpyoC&pg=PA141 |title=Naquin |year=1987 |page=141|isbn=0300046022 |last1=Naquin |first1=Susan |last2=Rawski |first2=Evelyn Sakakida |publisher=Yale University Press }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sZt0TgTAgPoC&pg=PA146 |title=Fairbank, Goldman |year=2006|isbn=9780674036659 |last1=Fairbank |first1=John King |last2=Goldman |first2=Merle |publisher=Harvard University Press }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Summing up Naquin/Rawski |url=https://pages.uoregon.edu/inaasim/Mingqing04/Qing3.htm |website=pages.uoregon.edu}}</ref> It was this multi-ethnic force in which Manchus were only a minority, which conquered China for the Qing.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gAIcwz3V_JsC&pg=PA175 |title=eds. Watson, Ebrey |year=1991 |page=175|isbn=9780520071247 |last1=Watson |first1=Rubie S. |last2=Ebrey |first2=Patricia Buckley |publisher=University of California Press }}</ref>

It was Han Chinese Bannermen who were responsible for the successful Qing conquest of China, they made up the majority of governors in the early Qing and were the ones who governed and administered China after the conquest, stabilizing Qing rule.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vI1RRslLNSwC&pg=PA41 |title=Spencer |year=1990 |page=41|isbn=9780393307801 |last1=Spence |first1=Jonathan D. |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company }}</ref> Han Bannermen dominated the post of governor-general in the time of the Shunzhi and [[Kangxi Emperor]]s, and also the post of governors, largely excluding ordinary Han civilians from the posts.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rXiSxh1oGe0C&pg=PA5 |title=Spence |year=1988 |pages=4–5|isbn=0300042779 |last1=Spence |first1=Jonathan D. |publisher=Yale University Press }}</ref>

To promote ethnic harmony, a 1648 decree from the Manchu [[Shunzhi Emperor]] allowed Han Chinese civilian men to marry Manchu women from the Banners with the permission of the Board of Revenue if they were registered daughters of officials or commoners or the permission of their banner company captain if they were unregistered commoners, it was only later in the dynasty that these policies allowing intermarriage were done away with.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Wang 2004, pp. 215–216 & 219–221. |url=http://www.chss.iup.edu/chr/CHR-2004Fall-11-WANG-research%20notes-final.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140111230216/http://www.chss.iup.edu/chr/CHR-2004Fall-11-WANG-research%20notes-final.pdf |archive-date=11 January 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Walthall |first=Anne |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QXHbhsfaJAYC&pg=PA140 |title=Servants of the Dynasty: Palace Women in World History |date=1 January 2008 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=9780520254442 |via=Google Books}}</ref>

The Qing implemented a policy of segregation between the Bannermen of the [[Eight Banners]] (Manchu Bannermen, Mongol Bannermen, Han Bannermen) and Han Chinese civilians{{when|date=July 2015}}. This ethnic segregation had cultural and economic reasons: intermarriage was forbidden to keep up the Manchu heritage and minimize [[sinicization]]. Han Chinese civilians and Mongol civilians [[Willow Palisade|were banned]] from settling in Manchuria.<ref>{{Cite web |title=From Ming to Qing |url=http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~inaasim/Mingqing04/Qing2.htm |access-date=18 January 2010 |publisher=Darkwing.uoregon.edu}}</ref> Han civilians and Mongol civilians were banned from crossing into each other's lands. Ordinary Mongol civilians in Inner Mongolia were banned from even crossing into other [[Banners of Inner Mongolia|Mongol Banners]] (a banner in Inner Mongolia was an administrative division and not related to the Mongol Bannermen in the Eight Banners).

These restrictions did not apply to [[Eight Banners|Han Bannermen]], who were settled in Manchuria by the Qing. Han bannermen were differentiated from Han civilians by the Qing and treated differently.

The Qing Dynasty started [[Chuang Guandong|colonizing Manchuria with Han Chinese]] later on in the dynasty's rule, but the Manchu area was still separated from modern-day Inner Mongolia by the [[Willow Palisade|Outer Willow Palisade]], which kept the Manchu and the Mongols in the area separate.

The policy of segregation applied directly to the [[Eight Banners|banner]] garrisons, most of which occupied a separate walled zone within the cities in which they were stationed. Manchu Bannermen, Han Bannermen, and Mongol Bannermen were separated from the Han civilian population. While the Manchus followed the governmental structure of the preceding [[Ming dynasty]], their ethnic policy dictated that appointments were split between Manchu noblemen and Han Chinese civilian officials who had passed the highest levels of the [[Imperial examinations|state examinations]], and because of the small number of Manchus, this insured that a large fraction of them would be government officials.