Quebec

==History==
{{Main|History of Quebec}}
{{For timeline}}
{{Further|Monarchy in Quebec#History}}

=== Indigenous peoples and European expeditions (pre-1608) ===
{{Main|Settlement of the Americas|Indigenous peoples in Quebec|Exploration of North America}}
[[File:Jacques_Cartier_1851-1852.jpg|left|thumb|A depiction of [[Jacques Cartier]] by [[Théophile Hamel]], 1844]]
The [[Paleo-Indians]], theorized to have migrated from Asia to America between 20,000 and 14,000 years ago, were the first people to establish themselves on the lands of Quebec, arriving there after the [[Laurentide Ice Sheet]] melted roughly 11,000 years ago.<ref>{{cite book| first1 = Jacques | last1 = Lacoursière | first2 = Jean | last2 = Provencher | first3 = Denis | last3 = Vaugeois | title = Canada-Quebec 1534&ndash;2000: historical summary |editor = Septentrion | year = 2000| isbn = 2-89448-156-X}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Bering Land Bridge |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.org/photo/bering-land-bridge/ |website=National Geographic}}</ref> From them, many [[Ethnic groups|ethnocultural groups]] emerged. At the time of the European explorations of the 1500s, there were eleven [[Indigenous peoples in Quebec|Indigenous peoples]]: the [[Inuit]] and ten [[First Nations in Canada|First Nations]]{{snd}} the [[Abenaki]]s, [[Algonquin people|Algonquin]]s (or Anichinabés), [[Atikamekw]], [[Cree]], [[Wyandot people|Huron-Wyandot]], [[Maliseet]] (also known as Wolastoqiyik or Etchemin), [[Miꞌkmaq]]s, [[Iroquois]], [[Innu]] (or Montagnais) and [[Naskapi]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.quebec.ca/gouv/portrait-quebec/premieres-nations-inuits/profil-des-nations |title = The Amerindians and {{sic|nolink=yes|Inuits}} of Quebec: 11 contemporary nations | publisher = Secretariat for Native Affairs | year = 2001 |page = 28 | isbn = 2-550-38480-6}}</ref> At the time, Algonquians organized into seven political entities and lived nomadic lives based on hunting, gathering, and fishing.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hx98AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA91|title=Native Peoples A to Z: A Reference Guide to Native Peoples of the Western Hemisphere|publisher=North American Book Dist LLC|year=2009|isbn=978-1-878592-73-6|volume=8|pages=91–97}}</ref> Inuit fished and hunted whales and seals along the coasts of Hudson and Ungava Bays.<ref name="Marsh19882">{{cite book|first=James H.|last=Marsh|url=https://archive.org/details/canadianencyclop04mars/page/2211|title=The Canadian encyclopedia|publisher=Hurtig Publishers|year=1988|isbn=978-0-88830-330-1|volume=4|page=[https://archive.org/details/canadianencyclop04mars/page/2211 2211]}}</ref>

In the 15th century, the [[Fall of Constantinople|Byzantine Empire fell]], prompting Western Europeans to search for new [[sea lane|sea routes]] to the [[Far East]].{{sfn|Charpentier|Durocher|Laville|Linteau|1985|p=47}} Around 1522–1523, [[Giovanni da Verrazzano]] persuaded [[King Francis I of France]] to commission an expedition to find a western route to [[Cathay]] (China) via a [[Northwest Passage]]. Though this expedition was unsuccessful, it established the name ''New France'' for northeastern North America.{{sfn|Charpentier|Durocher|Laville|Linteau|1985|p=50}} In his first expedition ordered from the Kingdom of France, [[Jacques Cartier]] became the first European explorer to discover and map Quebec when he landed in [[Gaspé, Quebec|Gaspé]] on July 24, 1534.{{sfn |Riendeau|2007| p=36}} The second expedition, in 1535, included three ships: the {{lang|fr|[[Grande Hermine]]}}, the {{lang|fr|[[Petite Hermine]]}} and the {{lang|fr|Emérillon}}. That year, Jacques Cartier explored the lands of [[Stadacona]] and named the village and its surrounding territories ''[[Canada (New France)|Canada]]'' (from {{lang|iro|kanata}}, 'village' in [[Iroquoian language|Iroquois]]). After wintering in Stadacona, Cartier returned to France with about 10 [[St. Lawrence Iroquoians]], including Chief [[Donnacona]]. In 1540, Donnacona told the legend of the [[Kingdom of Saguenay]] to the King, inspiring him to order a third expedition, this time led by [[Jean-François de La Rocque de Roberval]]; it was unsuccessful in its goal of finding the kingdom.{{sfn|Charpentier|Durocher|Laville|Linteau|1985|p=51}}

After these expeditions, France mostly abandoned North America for 50 years because of its financial crisis; France was involved in the [[Italian Wars]] and there were religious wars between [[Protestant]]s and [[Catholic]]s.<ref>{{cite book|first=Marcel |last=Trudel |title=Histoire de la [[Nouvelle-France]] : les vaines tentatives 1524&ndash;1603 |publisher=Fides |year=1963 |page=307}}</ref> Around 1580, the rise of the [[fur trade]] (particularly the demand for [[beaver]] pelts) reignited French interest; New France became a [[Factory (trading post)|colonial trading post]].<ref name=mathieu>{{cite web|url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/fr/article/nouvelle-france|work=The Canadian Encyclopedia|title=Nouvelle-France|last=Mathieu|first=Jacques|date=September 4, 2013}}</ref> In 1603, [[Samuel de Champlain]] travelled to the Saint Lawrence River and, on Pointe Saint-Mathieu, established a [[defence pact]] with the Innu, Maliseet and Micmacs, that would be "a decisive factor in the maintenance of a French colonial enterprise in America despite an enormous numerical disadvantage vis-à-vis the British".<ref name="Litalien20042">{{cite book|first=Raymonde|last=Litalien|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X2VAMDgy3YQC&pg=PA312|title=Champlain: The Birth of French America|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|year=2004|isbn=978-0-7735-7256-0|pages=312–314}}</ref> Thus also began French military support to the [[Algonquian peoples|Algonquian]] and Huron peoples against Iroquois attacks; these became known as the [[Beaver Wars|Iroquois Wars]] and lasted from the early 1600s to the early 1700s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/iroquois-wars|publisher=The Canadian Encyclopedia|title=Iroquois Wars|accessdate=July 10, 2021}}</ref>

===New France (1608–1763)===
{{Main|Canada (New France)|New France}}

[[File:Three_chiefs_of_the_Huron.jpg|left|thumb|Three Huron-Wyandot chiefs from [[Wendake, Quebec|Wendake]]. New France had largely peaceful relations with the Indigenous people, such as their allies the Huron. After the [[Beaver Wars|defeat of the Huron]] by their mutual enemy, the [[Iroquois]], many fled from Ontario to Quebec.]]

In 1608, Samuel de Champlain<ref>{{cite web |title=Champlain, Samuel de |volume=I (1000-1700) |work=Dictionnaire biographique du Canada|url=http://www.biographi.ca/fr/bio/champlain_samuel_de_1F.html|year=1966|last=Trudel|first=Marcel |language=fr}}</ref> returned to the region as head of an exploration party. On July 3, 1608, with the support of King [[Henri IV|Henry IV]], he founded the [[Habitation de Québec]] (now Quebec City) and made it the capital of New France and its regions (which, at the time, were [[Acadia]], ''Canada'' and [[Placentia, Newfoundland and Labrador|Plaisance]] in [[Terre-Neuve (New France)|Newfoundland]]).<ref name=mathieu/> The settlement was built as a permanent fur trading outpost, where First Nations traded their furs for French goods, such as metal objects, guns, alcohol, and clothing.<ref name="LeaMilward20012">{{cite book|first1=David |last1=Lea|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C7WayaUhkUEC&pg=PA43|title=A Political Chronology of the Americas|first2=Colette |last2=Milward|first3=Annamarie |last3=Rowe |publisher=Psychology Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-85743-118-6|page=43}}</ref> Several missionary groups arrived in New France after the founding of Quebec City, like the [[Recollects]] in 1615, the [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits]] in 1625 and the [[Society of the Priests of Saint Sulpice|Supliciens]] in 1657. [[Coureurs des bois]] and [[Catholic missions|Catholic missionaries]] used river [[canoe]]s to explore the interior of North America and establish fur trading forts.<ref name="Poulter20102">{{cite book|first=Gillian |last=Poulter|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZwJeuNYb4bIC&pg=PA33|title=Becoming Native in a Foreign Land: Sport, Visual Culture, and Identity in Montreal, 1840–85|publisher=UBC Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0-7748-1642-7|page=33}}</ref><ref name="Chartrand2013b2">{{cite book|first=Rene |last=Chartrand|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ihSrWOl-zsIC&pg=PA1736|title=French Fortresses in North America 1535–1763: Quebec, Montreal, Louisbourg and New Orleans|publisher=Osprey Publishing|year=2013|isbn=978-1-4728-0317-7}}</ref>

The [[Compagnie des Cent-Associés]], which had been granted a royal mandate to manage New France in 1627, introduced the [[Custom of Paris in New France|Custom of Paris]] and the [[Seigneurial system of New France|seigneurial system]], and forbade settlement in New France by anyone other than [[Roman Catholic]]s.<ref name="Harris19842">{{cite book|first=Richard |last=Cole Harris|url=https://archive.org/details/seigneurialsyste0000harr_b4j9|title=The Seigneurial System in Early Canada: A Geographical Study|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press|year=1984|isbn=978-0-7735-0434-9|pages=[https://archive.org/details/seigneurialsyste0000harr_b4j9/page/105 105]–109|url-access=registration}}</ref> In 1629, [[surrender of Quebec|Quebec City surrendered]], without battle, to English [[privateer]]s led by [[David Kirke]] during the [[Anglo-French War (1627–29)|Anglo-French War]]; in 1632, the English king agreed to return it with the [[Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1632)|Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye]]. [[Trois-Rivières]] was founded at Samuel de Champlain's request in 1634.<ref>{{cite web |title=Trois-Rivières {{!}} The Canadian Encyclopedia |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/trois-rivieres |website=thecanadianencyclopedia.ca |access-date=13 March 2023}}</ref> [[Paul de Chomedey, Sieur de Maisonneuve|Paul de Chomedey de Maisonneuve]] founded [[Fort Ville-Marie|Ville-Marie]] (now Montreal) in 1642.

In 1663, the Company of New France ceded Canada to [[King Louis XIV]], who officially made New France into a royal province of France.<ref name=rois>{{cite web|url=https://www.canada.ca/fr/patrimoine-canadien/services/famille-royale/rois-reines.html#c13|title=Rois et reines du Canada|date=August 11, 2017|publisher=Government of Canada}}</ref> New France was now a [[First French colonial empire|true colony]] administered by the [[Sovereign Council of New France]] from Quebec City. A [[Governor of New France|governor-general]], assisted by the [[intendant of New France]] and the [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Quebec|bishop of Quebec City]], governed Canada and its administrative dependencies: Acadia, [[Louisiana (New France)|Louisiana]] and Plaisance.<ref name="Hayes20082">{{cite book|first=Derek|last=Hayes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hrkq7t_4080C&pg=PA33|title=Canada: An Illustrated History|publisher=Douglas & McIntyre|year=2008|isbn=978-1-55365-259-5|page=33}}</ref> The French settlers were mostly farmers and were known as "[[Canadiens]]" or "[[Habitants]]". Though there was little immigration,<ref name="Preston20092">{{cite book|first=David L.|last=Preston|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L-9N6-6UCnoC&pg=PA43|title=The Texture of Contact: European and Indian Settler Communities on the Frontiers of Iroquoia, 1667–1783|publisher=University of Nebraska Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0-8032-2549-7|page=43}}</ref> the colony still grew because of the Habitants' high birth rates.<ref name="Powell20092">{{cite book|first=John|last=Powell|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VNCX6UsdZYkC&pg=PA203|title=Encyclopedia of North American Immigration|publisher=Infobase Publishing|year=2009|isbn=978-1-4381-1012-7|page=203}}</ref><ref name="McIlwraithMuller20012">{{cite book|first1=Thomas F.|last1=McIlwraith|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fa--xLT_dRYC&pg=PA72|title=North America: The Historical Geography of a Changing Continent|first2=Edward K.|last2=Muller|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|year=2001|isbn=978-1-4616-3960-2|page=72}}</ref> In 1665, the [[Régiment de Carignan-Salières|Carignan-Salières regiment]] developed the string of fortifications known as the "Valley of Forts" to protect against Iroquois invasions and brought along with them 1,200 new men.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ameriquefrancaise.org/fr/article-357/Fortifications_au_Qu%C3%A9bec,_un_patrimoine_arch%C3%A9ologique.html#.YOPFkugSg2w|publisher= Amerique francaise|title=Fortifications au Quebec|accessdate=September 12, 2021}}</ref> To redress the severe gender imbalance and boost population growth, King Louis XIV sponsored the passage of approximately 800 young French women ([[les filles du roi|King's Daughters]]) to the colony.<ref name=rois/> In 1666, intendant [[Jean Talon]] organized the first census and counted 3,215 Habitants. Talon also enacted policies to diversify agriculture and encourage births, which, in 1672, had increased the population to 6,700.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://histoire-du-quebec.ca/recensement-canada/|title=Premier recensement au Canada (Nouvelle-France)|publisher=Histoire du Quebec|accessdate=July 5, 2021}}</ref>

New France's territory grew to extend from [[Hudson Bay]] all the way to the [[Gulf of Mexico]], and would also encompass the [[Great Lakes]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.museedelhistoire.ca/musee-virtuel-de-la-nouvelle-france/les-explorateurs/rene-robert-cavelier-de-la-salle-1670-1687/|publisher=Canadian Museum of History|title=René-Robert Cavelier de La Salle 1670-1687|accessdate=July 5, 2021}}</ref> In the early 1700s, [[Louis-Hector de Callière|Governor Callières]] concluded the [[Great Peace of Montreal]], which not only confirmed the alliance between the Algonquian and New France, but also definitively ended the Iroquois Wars.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ohiohistorycentral.org/w/Beaver_Wars|publisher=Ohio History Central|title=Beaver Wars|accessdate=July 5, 2021}}</ref> From 1688 onwards, the fierce competition between the French and British to control North America's interior and monopolize the fur trade pitted New France and its Indigenous allies against the Iroquois and English in a series of four successive wars called the [[French and Indian Wars]] by Americans, and the Intercolonial Wars in Quebec.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/King-Williams-War|title=King William's War|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|accessdate=July 29, 2019}}</ref> The first three of these wars were [[King William's War]] (1688&ndash;1697), [[Queen Anne's War]] (1702&ndash;1713), and [[King George's War]] (1744&ndash;1748). In 1690, the [[Battle of Quebec (1690)|Battle of Quebec]] became the first time Quebec City's defences were tested. In 1713, following the [[Peace of Utrecht]], the [[Philippe II, Duke of Orléans|Duke of Orléans]] ceded Acadia and [[Placentia Bay|Plaisance Bay]] to Great Britain, but retained [[Isle Saint-Jean|Île Saint-Jean]] ([[Prince Edward Island]]), and [[Île-Royale (New France)|Île-Royale]] ([[Cape Breton Island]]) where the [[Fortress of Louisbourg]] was subsequently erected. These losses were significant since Plaisance Bay was the primary communication route between New France and France, and Acadia contained 5,000 [[Acadian people|Acadians]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/treaties-of-Utrecht|title=Treaties of Utrecht |website=Encyclopedia Britannica|accessdate=July 29, 2019}}</ref>{{sfn|Charpentier|Durocher|Laville|Linteau|1985|p=115}} In the [[Siege of Louisbourg (1745)|siege of Louisbourg]] in 1745, the British were victorious, but returned the city to France after war concessions.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/louisbourg|title=Louisbourg|website=The Canadian Encyclopedia|last=Moore|first=Christopher|date=March 2, 2017}}</ref>

[[Image:Montcalm leading his troops at the Plains of Abraham.jpg|thumb|Montcalm leading his troops into battle. Watercolour by [[Charles William Jefferys]].]]
The last of the four French and Indian Wars was called the [[Seven Years' War]] ("The War of the [[Conquest of New France (1758–1760)|Conquest]]" in Quebec) and lasted from 1754 to 1763.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Seven Years' War|encyclopedia=The Canadian Encyclopedia|url=http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/seven-years-war/|date=March 24, 2021|last=Eccles|first=WJ}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|publisher=Canadian National Battlefields Commission|title=The Siege of Québec: An episode of the Seven Years' War|url=http://bataille.ccbn-nbc.gc.ca/en/guerre-de-sept-ans/contexte.php|url-status=live|archiveurl=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20110726113932/http://bataille.ccbn-nbc.gc.ca/en/guerre-de-sept-ans/contexte.php|archivedate=July 26, 2011|accessdate=July 5, 2011}}</ref> In 1754, tensions escalated for control of the [[Ohio Valley]], as authorities in New France became more aggressive in their efforts to expel British traders and colonists from the area.<ref>O'Meara, pp. 15–19</ref> In 1754, [[George Washington]] launched a surprise attack on a group of sleeping Canadien soldiers, known as the [[Battle of Jumonville Glen]], the first battle of the war. In 1755, Governor [[Charles Lawrence (British Army officer)|Charles Lawrence]] and Officer [[Robert Monckton]] ordered the forceful [[Deportation of the Acadians]]. In 1758, on Île-Royale, British General James Wolfe [[Siege of Louisbourg (1758)|besieged and captured]] the Fortress of Louisbourg.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bac-lac.gc.ca/fra/nouvelles/communiques-de-presse/Pages/2013/acquisition-documents-historiques-louisbourg.aspx|title=ARCHIVÉE - Le gouvernement du Canada fait l'acquisition de documents historiques importants concernant le siège de Louisbourg de 1758|date=December 6, 2013|publisher=Library and Archives Canada}}</ref> This allowed him to control access to the [[Gulf of St. Lawrence]] through the [[Cabot Strait]]. In 1759, he besieged Quebec for nearly three months from [[Île d'Orléans]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.patrimoine-culturel.gouv.qc.ca/rpcq/detail.do?methode=consulter&id=25650&type=pge|publisher=Gouvernement du Quebec|title=Siège de Québec par Wolfe|accessdate=July 5, 2021}}</ref> Then, Wolfe stormed Quebec and fought against Montcalm for control of the city in the [[Battle of the Plains of Abraham]]. After a British victory, the [[Steward (office)|king's lieutenant]] and [[Jean-Baptiste Nicolas Roch de Ramezay|Lord of Ramezay]] concluded the [[Articles of Capitulation of Quebec]]. During the spring of 1760, the [[François Gaston de Lévis|Chevalier de Lévis]] besieged Quebec City and forced the British to entrench themselves during the [[Battle of Sainte-Foy]]. However, the loss of the French vessels sent to resupply New France after the fall of Quebec City during the [[Battle of Restigouche]] marked the end of France's efforts to try to retake the colony. [[Pierre de Rigaud, marquis de Vaudreuil-Cavagnial|Governor Pierre de Rigaud, marquis de Vaudreuil-Cavagnial]] signed the [[Articles of Capitulation of Montreal]] on September 8, 1760.

While awaiting the results of the Seven Years' War in Europe, New France was put under a [[British military regime in New France|British military regime]] led by Governor [[James Murray (British Army officer, born 1721)|James Murray]].<ref name="britannica murray">{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/James-Murray-British-soldier-and-official|title=James Murray: British soldier and official|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|accessdate=July 29, 2019}}</ref> In 1762, Commander [[Jeffery Amherst]] ended the French presence in Newfoundland at the [[Battle of Signal Hill]]. Two months later, France secretly ceded the western part of Louisiana and the [[Mississippi River Delta]] to Spain via the [[Treaty of Fontainebleau (1762)|Treaty of Fontainebleau]]. On February 10, 1763, the [[Treaty of Paris (1763)|Treaty of Paris]] concluded the war. With the exception of the small islands of [[Saint Pierre and Miquelon]], France ceded its North American possessions to Great Britain.{{sfn |Hunter|1999| pp=505&ndash;506}} Thus, France had put an end to New France and abandoned the remaining 60,000 Canadiens, who sided with the Catholic [[clergy]] in refusing to take an oath to the [[British Crown]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Treaty-of-Paris-1763|title=Treaty of Paris - 1763|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|accessdate=July 29, 2019}}</ref> The rupture from France would provoke a transformation within the [[French Canadians|descendants of the Canadiens]] that would eventually result in the [[nation|birth of a new nation]].<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/haf/1958-v12-n2-haf2023/301901ar.pdf|title=Les Canadiens apres la conquete|journal=Revue d'histoire de l'Amérique française|first=Michel|last=Brunet|year=1958|volume=12}}</ref>

===British North America (1763–1867)===
{{Main|Province of Quebec (1763–1791)|Lower Canada|Canada East}}

[[File:Province_of_Quebec_1774.gif|thumb|The [[Province of Quebec (1763-1791)|Province of Quebec]] in 1774]]
After the British officially acquired Canada in 1763, the British government established a constitution for the newly acquired territory, under the [[Royal Proclamation of 1763|Royal Proclamation]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.assnat.qc.ca/fr/patrimoine/lexique/proclamation-royale-(1763).html#:~:text=Le%2010%20f%C3%A9vrier%201763%2C%20en,France%20et%20par%20l'Espagne.|publisher=Government of Quebec|title=Proclamation royale (1763)|accessdate=July 5, 2021}}</ref> From this point on, the Canadiens were subordinated to the government of the [[First British Empire|British Empire]] and circumscribed to a region of the [[St. Lawrence River|St. Lawrence Valley]] and [[Anticosti Island]] called the [[Province of Quebec (1763–1791)|Province of Quebec]]. With unrest growing in their southern colonies, the British were worried that the Canadiens (the majority of the population) might support what would become the [[American Revolution]]. To secure the allegiance of Canadiens to the British crown, Governor [[James Murray (Quebec governor)|James Murray]] and later Governor [[Guy Carleton, 1st Baron Dorchester|Guy Carleton]] promoted the need for accommodations, resulting in the enactment of the [[Quebec Act]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Quebec Act, 1774|website=The Canadian Encyclopedia|last=Dagenais|first=Maxime|date=May 11, 2020|url=https://thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/quebec-act}}</ref> of 1774. This act allowed Canadiens to regain their [[Law in Quebec|civil customs]], return to the seigneural system, regain certain rights (including the use of the French language), and reappropriate their old territories: Labrador, the Great Lakes, the Ohio Valley, [[Illinois Country]] and the [[Indian Territory]].<ref name="Geographers19682">{{cite book|author=Canadian Association of Geographers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=voYOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA33|title=Canada: a Geographical Interpretation|publisher=Taylor & Francis|year=1968|isbn=9780458906000|page=33}}</ref>

As early as 1774, the [[Continental Congress]] of the separatist [[Thirteen Colonies]] attempted to rally the Canadiens to its cause. However, [[Continental Army|its military troops]] failed to defeat the British counteroffensive during its [[Invasion of Quebec (1775)|Invasion of Quebec]] in 1775. Most Canadiens remained neutral, although some patriotic regiments allied themselves with the Americans in the [[Saratoga campaign]] of 1777. When the British Empire recognized the independence of the rebel colonies at the signing of the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaty of Paris]] of 1783, it conceded Illinois and the Ohio Valley to the newly formed [[United States]] and denoted the 45th parallel as its border, drastically reducing Quebec's size.

Some [[United Empire Loyalists]] from the US migrated to Quebec and populated various regions, including the [[Niagara Peninsula]], the [[Eastern Townships]] and [[Thousand Islands]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://histoire-du-quebec.ca/loyalistes/|title=Loyalistes au Bas-Canada|publisher=Histoire du Quebec|accessdate=July 5, 2021}}</ref> Dissatisfied with the legal rights under the French seigneurial régime which applied in Quebec, and wanting to use the British legal system to which they were accustomed, the Loyalists protested to British authorities until the [[Constitutional Act 1791|Constitutional Act]] of 1791 was enacted, dividing the Province of Quebec into two distinct colonies starting from the [[Ottawa River]]: [[Upper Canada]] to the west (predominantly Anglo-Protestant) and [[Lower Canada]] to the east (predominantly Franco-Catholic). Lower Canada's lands consisted of the coasts of the Saint Lawrence River, Labrador and Anticosti Island, with the territory extending north to the boundary of [[Rupert's Land]], and extending south, east and west to the borders with the US, New Brunswick, and Upper Canada. The creation of Upper and Lower Canada allowed Loyalists to live under British laws and institutions, while Canadiens could maintain their French civil law and Catholic religion. Furthermore, Governor Haldimand drew Loyalists away from Quebec City and Montreal by offering free land on the northern shore of Lake Ontario to anyone willing to swear allegiance to George III. During the [[War of 1812]], [[Charles de Salaberry|Charles-Michel de Salaberry]] became a hero by leading the Canadian troops to victory at the [[Battle of the Chateauguay]]. This loss caused the Americans to abandon the Saint Lawrence Campaign, their major strategic effort to conquer Canada.

[[File:Saint-Eustache-Patriotes.jpg|thumb|The [[Battle of Saint-Eustache]] was the final battle of the Lower Canada Rebellion.<ref name=rebellion/>]]
Gradually, the [[Legislative Assembly of Lower Canada]], who represented the people, came into conflict with the superior authority of the [[The Crown|Crown]] and [[Legislative Council of Lower Canada|its appointed representatives]]. Starting in 1791, the government of Lower Canada was criticized and contested by the [[Parti canadien]]. In 1834, the Parti canadien presented its [[Ninety-Two Resolutions|92 resolutions]], a series of political demands which expressed a loss of confidence in the [[British monarchy]]. Discontentment intensified throughout the [[List of the public meetings held in Lower Canada between May and November 1837|public meetings]] of 1837, and the [[Lower Canada Rebellion]] began in 1837.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/fr/article/patriotes|title=Patriotes|website=L'Encyclopédie Canadienne|last=Roy|first=Fernande|date=March 4, 2015}}</ref> In 1837, [[Louis-Joseph Papineau]] and [[Robert Nelson (insurrectionist)|Robert Nelson]] led residents of Lower Canada to form an armed resistance group called the [[Patriotes]]. They made a [[Declaration of Independence of Lower Canada|Declaration of Independence]] in 1838, guaranteeing human rights and equality for all citizens without discrimination.<ref>{{cite web|author=Nelson, Robert|date=February 1838|title=Declaration of Independence of Lower Canada|url=http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Declaration_of_Independence_of_Lower_Canada|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111107082359/http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Declaration_of_Independence_of_Lower_Canada|archivedate=November 7, 2011|accessdate=February 21, 2010|work=Wikisource}}</ref> Their actions resulted in rebellions in both Lower and [[Upper Canada Rebellion|Upper Canada]]. The Patriotes forces were victorious in their first battle, the [[Battle of Saint-Denis (1837)|Battle of Saint-Denis]]. However, the Patriotes were unorganized and badly equipped, leading to their loss against the British army in their second battle, the [[Battle of Saint-Charles]], and their defeat in their final battle, the [[Battle of Saint-Eustache]].<ref name=rebellion>{{cite web|url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/fr/article/rebellion-du-bas-canada|work=The Canadian Encyclopedia|title=Rébellion du Bas-Canada (La guerre des patriotes)|last=Buckner|first=Phillip|date=July 23, 2020}}</ref>

In response to the rebellions, [[John Lambton, 1st Earl of Durham|Lord Durham]] was asked to undertake a study and prepare a [[Report on the Affairs of British North America|report]] offering a solution to the British Parliament.<ref name="durham2">{{cite web|last=Ouellet |first=Fernand|title=Lambton, John George, 1st Earl of Durham|url=http://www.biographi.ca/009004-119.01-e.php?BioId=37606&PHPSESSID=qj23a0tmehl1lulfrlfrhk0c53|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110805103634/http://www.biographi.ca/009004-119.01-e.php?BioId=37606&PHPSESSID=qj23a0tmehl1lulfrlfrhk0c53|archivedate=August 5, 2011|accessdate=July 12, 2011|work=Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online}}</ref> In his report, Lord Durham recommended that Canadiens be [[Cultural assimilation|culturally assimilated]], with English as their only official language. In order to do this, the British passed the ''[[Act of Union 1840]]'', which merged Upper Canada and Lower Canada into a single colony: the [[Province of Canada]]. Lower Canada became the francophone and densely populated [[Canada East]], and Upper Canada became the anglophone and sparsely populated [[Canada West]]. This union, unsurprisingly, was the main source of political instability until 1867. Despite their population gap, both Canada East and Canada West obtained an identical number of seats in the [[Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada]], which created representation problems. In the beginning, Canada East was under-represented because of its superior population size. Over time, however, massive immigration from the British Isles to Canada West occurred, which increased its population. Since the two regions continued to have equal representation in the Parliament, this meant that it was now Canada West that was under-represented. The representation issues were frequently called into question by debates on [[Representation (politics)|"Representation by Population"]]. From this period onward, the British population gradually began to use the term "[[English Canadians|Canadian]]", referring to Canada, their place of residence. The French population, who had thus far identified as "Canadiens", began to be identified with their [[ethnic community]] under the name "[[French Canadian]]" as they were a "French of Canada".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/ijcs/2008-n37-ijcs3714/040800ar.pdf |title=The Only Canadians: Canada's French and the British Connection |language=fr |access-date=22 August 2023}}</ref>

As access to new lands remained problematic because they were still monopolized by the [[Château Clique|Clique du Château]], an exodus of Canadiens towards [[New England]] began and went on for the next one hundred years. This phenomenon is known as the [[Grande Hémorragie]] and greatly threatened the survival of the Canadien nation. The massive British immigration ordered from London that soon followed the failed rebellion compounded this problem. In order to combat this, the Church adopted the [[La Revanche des berceaux|revenge of the cradle]] policy. In 1844, the capital of the Province of Canada was moved from [[Kingston, Ontario|Kingston]] to Montreal.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=Musée Pointe-à-Callière |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uCWs7opCrUI  |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211213/uCWs7opCrUI |archive-date=December 13, 2021 |url-status=live|title=Montréal, une capitale, un parlement (1844-1849) |language=fr |via=YouTube |accessdate=September 12, 2021}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

Political unrest came to a head in 1849, when English Canadian rioters [[Burning of the Parliament Buildings in Montreal|set fire to the Parliament Building in Montreal]] following the enactment of the ''[[Rebellion Losses Bill]],'' a law that compensated French Canadians whose properties were destroyed during the rebellions of 1837–1838.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://histoire-du-quebec.ca/incendie-parlement-1849/|title=Émeute du 25 avril 1849 : Incendie du Parlement|publisher=Histoire du Quebec|accessdate=July 5, 2021 |language=fr}}</ref> This bill, resulting from the [[Robert Baldwin|Baldwin]]-[[Louis-Hippolyte Lafontaine|La Fontaine]] coalition and Lord Elgin's advice, was a very important one as it established the notion of [[responsible government]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/fr/article/loi-dindemnisation-pour-le-bas-canada|encyclopedia=L'Encyclopédie canadienne|title=Loi d'indemnisation pour le Bas-Canada|last=Mills|first=David|date=March 4, 2015 |language=fr}}</ref> In 1854, the seigneurial system was abolished, the [[Grand Trunk Railway]] was built and the [[Canadian–American Reciprocity Treaty]] was implemented. In 1866, the ''[[Civil Code of Lower Canada]]'' was adopted.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/fr/article/grand-trunk-railway-of-canada |title=Grand Trunk Railway of Canada |language=fr|first=James|last=Marsh|date=June 3, 2015 |encyclopedia=L'Encyclopédie canadienne}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-economic-history/article/abs/canadianamerican-reciprocity-treaty-of-1855-to-1866/43B9931704F67904DABB6474B5475F46 |title=The Canadian-American Reciprocity Treaty of 1855 to 1866 |journal=The Journal of Economic History |date=2011 |last1=Officer |first1=Lawrence H. |last2=Smith |first2=Lawrence B. |volume=28 |issue=4}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.ameriquefrancaise.org/fr/article-404/R%C3%A9gime_seigneurial_au_Qu%C3%A9bec__.html#.YOPNsOgSg2w |title=Régime seigneurial au Québec |language=fr |encyclopedia=Encyclopédie du Patrimoine Culturel de l'Amérique Française|accessdate=September 12, 2021}}</ref>

===Canadian province (1867–present)===
[[File:George-Etienne Cartier.jpg|thumb|upright|[[George-Étienne Cartier]], co-premier from [[Canada East]] and a Father of Confederation]]
In 1864, negotiations began for [[Canadian Confederation]] between the Province of Canada, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia at the [[Charlottetown Conference]] and [[Quebec Conference, 1864|Quebec Conference]].

After having fought as a Patriote, [[George-Étienne Cartier]] entered politics in the Province of Canada, eventually becoming one of the co-premiers and an advocate for the union of the British North American provinces. He became one of the leading figures at the Quebec Conference, which produced the [[Quebec Resolutions]], the foundation for Canadian Confederation.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Bibliothèque et Archives Canada |url=http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/confederation/023001-7104-f.html|title= Résolutions de la Conférence de Québec - octobre 1864|accessdate=September 12, 2021}}</ref> Recognized as a [[Father of Confederation]], he successfully argued for the establishment of the province of Quebec, initially composed of the historic heart of the territory of the French Canadian nation and where French Canadians would most likely retain majority status.

Following the [[London Conference of 1866]], the Quebec Resolutions were implemented as the ''[[British North America Act, 1867]]'' and brought into force on July 1, 1867, creating [[Canada]]. Canada was composed of four founding provinces: New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, [[Ontario]] and Quebec. These last two came from the splitting of the Province of Canada, and used the old borders of Lower Canada for Quebec, and Upper Canada for Ontario. On July 15, 1867, [[Pierre-Joseph-Olivier Chauveau]] became Quebec's [[List of premiers of Quebec|first premier]].

From Confederation until the First World War, the omnipresence of the Roman Catholic Church was at its peak. The objective of clerico-nationalists was promoting the values of traditional society: family, the French language, the Catholic Church and rural life. Also during this time period, events such as the [[North-West Rebellion]], the [[Manitoba Schools Question]] and Ontario's [[Regulation 17]] turned the promotion and defence of the rights of French Canadians into an important concern.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.alloprof.qc.ca/fr/eleves/bv/histoire/le-nationalisme-canadien-francais-h1401|title=Le nationalisme canadien-francais|publisher=Allo Prof|accessdate=July 5, 2021}}</ref> Under the aegis of the Catholic Church and the political action of [[Henri Bourassa]], various symbols of national pride were developed, like the [[Flag of Carillon]], and "[[O Canada]]" &ndash; a patriotic song composed for [[Saint-Jean-Baptiste Day]]. Many organizations went on to consecrate the affirmation of the French-Canadian people, including the [[caisses populaires Desjardins]] in 1900, the {{ill|Catholic Association of French-Canadian Youth|fr|Association catholique de la jeunesse canadienne-française}} in 1904, the [[Club de hockey Canadien]] in 1909, ''[[Le Devoir]]'' in 1910, the [[Congress on the French language in Canada|Congrès de la langue française]] in 1912, ''{{ill|L'Action catholique|fr}}'' in 1915, and ''[[L'Action nationale]]'' in 1917. In 1885, liberal and conservative MPs formed the [[Parti national]] out of anger with the previous government for not having interceded in the execution of [[Louis Riel]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/fr/article/parti-national|title=Parti national |language=fr|encyclopedia=The Canadian Encyclopedia|date=February 19, 2014}}</ref>

In 1898, the Canadian Parliament enacted the ''[[Quebec Boundary Extension Act, 1898]]'', which gave Quebec part of Rupert's Land, which Canada had bought from the [[Hudson's Bay Company]] in 1870.<ref>{{cite web|first=Jill|last=Wherrett|date=February 1996|title=ABORIGINAL PEOPLES AND THE 1995 QUEBEC REFERENDUM: A SURVEY OF THE ISSUES|url=http://www.parl.gc.ca/information/library/PRBpubs/bp412-e.htm#B|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060613195221/http://www.parl.gc.ca/information/library/PRBpubs/bp412-e.htm#B|archivedate=June 13, 2006}}</ref> This act expanded the boundaries of Quebec northward. In 1909, the government passed a law obligating wood and pulp to be transformed in Quebec, which helped slow the {{lang|fr|Grande Hémorragie}} by allowing Quebec to export its finished products to the US instead of its labour force.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Adoption d'une loi sur l'exportation du bois|url=http://bilan.usherbrooke.ca/bilan/pages/evenements/172.html|accessdate=August 4, 2021|publisher=University of Sherbrooke |language=fr}}</ref> In 1910, [[Armand Lavergne]] passed the [[Lavergne Law]], the first language legislation in Quebec. It required the use of French alongside English on tickets, documents, bills and contracts issued by transportation and public utility companies. At this time, companies rarely recognized the majority language of Quebec.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.uottawa.ca/calc/loi-lavergne-1910-loi-amendant-code-civil-concernant-contrats-faits-compagnies-services-dutilite|title=Loi Lavergne |series=Compendium de l'aménagement linguistique au Canada (CALC) |language=fr|publisher=University of Ottawa|accessdate=September 12, 2021}}</ref> Clerico-nationalists eventually started to fall out of favour in the [[1911 Canadian federal election|federal elections of 1911]]. In 1912, the Canadian Parliament enacted the ''[[Quebec Boundaries Extension Act, 1912]]'', which gave Quebec another part of Rupert's Land: the [[District of Ungava]].<ref name="Morantz20022">{{cite book|author=Toby Elaine Morantz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SLPxHz4tHUUC&pg=PA133|title=The White Man's Gonna Getcha: The Colonial Challenge to the Crees in Québec|year= 2002|publisher=McGill-Queens|isbn=978-0-7735-2299-2|page=133}}</ref> This extended the borders of Quebec northward all the way to the [[Hudson Strait]].

When the First World War broke out, Canada was automatically involved and many English Canadians volunteered. However, because they did not feel the same connection to the British Empire and there was no direct threat to Canada, French Canadians saw no reason to fight. A few did enlist in the 22nd Battalion, precursor to the [[Royal 22e Régiment|Royal 22<sup>e</sup> Régiment]]. By late 1916, the number of casualties were beginning to cause reinforcement problems. After enormous difficulty in the federal government, because virtually every French-speaking MP opposed conscription while almost all the English-speaking MPs supported it, the ''Military Service Act'' became law on August 29, 1917.<ref name="Conscription au Canada">{{cite web|url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/fr/article/conscription|title=Conscription au Canada|website=The Canadian Encyclopedia|date=May 6, 2021}}</ref> French Canadians protested in what is now called the [[Conscription Crisis of 1917]], which eventually led to the {{ill|Quebec riot|fr|Émeute de Québec de 1918}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.warmuseum.ca/learn/dispatches/french-canada-and-recruitment-during-the-first-world-war/#tabs|title=FRENCH CANADA AND RECRUITMENT DURING THE FIRST WORLD WAR|publisher=Canadian War Museum|accessdate=September 12, 2021}}</ref>

In 1919, the [[prohibition]] of [[Liquor|spirits]] was enacted following [[1919 Quebec prohibition referendum|a provincial referendum]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Les années de la prohibition |url=https://www.saq.com/fr/contenu/inspiration/reportages/annees-prohibition |website=www.saq.com |access-date=13 March 2023 |language=fr}}</ref> But, prohibition was quickly abolished in 1921 due to the ''Alcoholic Beverages Act'' which created the [[Société des alcools du Québec|Commission des liqueurs du Québec]].<ref>{{cite web |title=L'histoire de la SAQ : Société d'Alcool du Québec |url=https://chateausuau.com/fr/blog/lhistoire-de-la-saq/ |website=Chateau Suau |access-date=13 March 2023 |language=fr |date=26 February 2016}}</ref> In 1927, the British [[Judicial Committee of the Privy Council]] drew a clear border between northeast Quebec and south [[Dominion of Newfoundland|Labrador]]. However, the Quebec government did not recognize the ruling of the Judicial Committee, resulting in a [[Labrador boundary dispute|boundary dispute]] which [[Border between Quebec and Newfoundland and Labrador|remains ongoing]]. The [[Statute of Westminster 1931]] was enacted, and it confirmed the autonomy of the [[Dominion]]s &ndash; including Canada and its provinces &ndash; from the United Kingdom, as well as their free association in the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/fr/article/statut-de-westminster|title=Statut de Westminster|website=The Canadian Encyclopedia|date=April 29, 2020}}</ref> In the 1930s, Quebec's economy was affected by the [[Great Depression]] because it greatly reduced American demand for Quebec exports. Between 1929 and 1932 the unemployment rate increased from 7.7% to 26.4%. In an attempt to remedy this, the Quebec government enacted infrastructure projects, campaigns to colonize distant regions (mostly in [[Abitibi-Témiscamingue]] and [[Bas-Saint-Laurent]]), financial assistance to farmers, and the {{lang|fr|secours directs}} &ndash; the ancestor to Canada's [[Employment Insurance]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Alloprof aide aux devoirs |url=https://www.alloprof.qc.ca/fr/eleves/bv/histoire/la-grande-depression-h1636|accessdate=July 31, 2021|publisher=Allo Prof}}</ref>

[[File:Maurice Duplessis.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Maurice Duplessis]], premier of Quebec from 1936 to 1939 and during the {{lang|fr|[[Grande Noirceur]]}}]]
French Canadians remained opposed to conscription during the Second World War. When Canada declared war in September 1939, the federal government pledged not to conscript soldiers for overseas service. As the war went on, more and more English Canadians voiced support for conscription, despite firm opposition from French Canada. Following a 1942 poll that showed 72.9% of Quebec's residents were ''against'' conscription, while 80% or more were ''for'' conscription in every other province, the federal government passed ''Bill 80'' for overseas service. [[Conscription Crisis of 1944|Protests exploded]] and the [[Bloc Populaire]] emerged to fight conscription.<ref name="Conscription au Canada"/> The stark differences between the values of French and English Canada popularized the expression the "[[Two Solitudes (Canadian society)|Two Solitudes]]".

In the wake of the conscription crisis, [[Maurice Duplessis]] of the [[Union Nationale (Quebec)|Union Nationale]] ascended to power and implemented a set of conservative policies known as the {{lang|fr|[[Grande Noirceur]]}}. He focused on defending [[Autonomism in Quebec|provincial autonomy]], Quebec's Catholic and francophone heritage, and laissez-faire [[liberalism]] instead of the emerging [[welfare state]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=GÉLINAS|first1= Xavier |first2=Lucia |last2=Ferretti|title=Duplessis : son milieu, son époque|publisher=Septentrion|year= 2010|page=267|isbn=978-2-89448-625-2}}</ref> However, as early as 1948, French Canadian society began to develop new ideologies and desires in response to significant societal changes such as new inventions like the television, the [[Mid-20th century baby boom|baby boom]], [[Strike action|workers' conflicts]], electrification of the countryside, emergence of a [[middle class]], the [[rural exodus]] and [[urbanization]], expansion of universities and bureaucracies, creation of a [[Autoroutes of Quebec|motorway system]], renaissance of literature and poetry, and others.

===Modern Quebec (1960–present)===
[[File:Maitres chez nous 1962.jpg|upright=1.1|thumb|"{{lang|fr|Maîtres chez nous}}" was the electoral slogan of the Liberal Party during the 1962 election.]]
The [[Quiet Revolution]] was a period of intense modernization, secularization and social reform where, in a collective awakening, French Canadians clearly expressed their concern and dissatisfaction with their inferior [[Socioeconomic status|socioeconomic position]] and the cultural assimilation of francophone minorities in the English-majority provinces. It resulted, among many other things, in the formation of the modern Québécois identity and [[Quebec nationalism]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/fr/article/relations-francophones-anglophones|title=Relations francophones-anglophones|website=L'Encyclopédie Canadienne|date=March 4, 2015}}</ref><ref name="short history2">{{cite book|last1=Dickinson|first1=John|url=https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryofqu0000dick_z9p8|title=A Short History of Quebec|last2=Young|first2=Brian|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|year=2003|page=[https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryofqu0000dick_z9p8/page/372 372]|url-access=registration}}</ref> In 1960, the Liberal Party of Quebec was brought to power with a two-seat majority, having campaigned with the slogan "{{lang|fr|C'est l'temps qu'ça change}}" ("It's time for things to change"). This government made many reforms in the fields of social policy, education, health and economic development. It created the [[Caisse de dépôt et placement du Québec]], Labour Code, [[Ministry of Health and Social Services (Quebec)|Ministry of Social Affairs]], [[Ministry of Education and Higher Education (Quebec)|Ministry of Education]], {{Lang|fr|[[Office québécois de la langue française]]|italic=no}}, Régie des rentes and [[Investissement Québec|Société générale de financement]]. In 1962, the government of Quebec dismantled the financial syndicates of [[Saint Jacques Street]]. The same year, Quebec began to [[History of Hydro-Québec#1963: Second stage of state control|nationalize its electricity]]. In order to buy out all the private electric companies and build new [[Hydro-Québec]] dams, Quebec was lent $300 million by the US in 1962,<ref>{{cite web |title=Radio-Canada.ca / R D I / ZONE LIBRE |url=https://ici.radio-canada.ca/actualite/zonelibre/03-04/electricite.asp |website=ici.radio-canada.ca |access-date=13 March 2023}}</ref> and $100 million by [[British Columbia]] in 1964.<ref>{{cite news |title=Province Lending to Quebec |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1964/09/10/archives/province-lending-to-quebec.html |access-date=13 March 2023 |publisher=The New York Times |date=1964}}</ref>

The Quiet Revolution was particularly characterized by the 1962 Liberal Party's slogan "{{lang|fr|Maîtres chez nous}}" ("Masters in our own house"), which, to the Anglo-American conglomerates that dominated the economy and natural resources of Quebec, announced a collective will for freedom of the French-Canadian people.<ref>{{cite book|first=Jacques |last=Parizeau |title=La souveraineté du Québec : Hier, aujourd'hui et demain |publisher=Michel Brûlé |year=2009 |chapter=189 |isbn=9-782894-854556}}</ref> As a result of confrontations between the lower [[clergy]] and the [[laity]], state institutions began to deliver services without the assistance of the church, and many parts of [[civil society]] began to be more secular. During the [[Second Vatican Council]], the reform of Quebec's institutions was overseen and supported by the [[Holy See]]. In 1965, the [[Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ledevoir.com/opinion/idees/515763/bilinguisme-et-biculturalisme-un-plaidoyer-en-faveur-de-la-dualite-canadienne|title=Un plaidoyer en faveur de la dualité canadienne|website=Le Devoir|accessdate=July 29, 2019}}</ref> wrote a preliminary report underlining Quebec's distinct character, and promoted open federalism, a political attitude guaranteeing Quebec to a minimum amount of consideration.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sqrc.gouv.qc.ca/relations-canadiennes/federalisme/quebec-fil-du-temps.asp#26|title=Le Québec au fil du temps |publisher= Secrétariat du Québec aux relations canadiennes|accessdate=July 29, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://archives.radio-canada.ca/politique/provincial_territorial/dossiers/592/|title=La Commission Laurendeau-Dunton|website=Les Archives de Radio-Canada|accessdate=July 29, 2019|archive-date=March 28, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190328195017/http://archives.radio-canada.ca/politique/provincial_territorial/dossiers/592/|url-status=dead}}</ref> To favour Quebec during its Quiet Revolution, [[Lester B. Pearson]] adopted a policy of open federalism.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://collections.musee-mccord.qc.ca/scripts/explore.php?Lang=2&tableid=11&tablename=theme&elementid=108__true&contentlong|title=Les relations Québec-Canada|publisher=Musée McCord Museum|accessdate=July 29, 2019|archive-date=March 28, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190328214905/http://collections.musee-mccord.qc.ca/scripts/explore.php?Lang=2&tableid=11&tablename=theme&elementid=108__true&contentlong|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/fr/article/lester-bowles-pearson|title=Lester Bowles Pearson|website=L'Encyclopédie Canadienne|last=Bothwell|first=Robert|date=February 10, 2021}}</ref> In 1966, the Union Nationale was re-elected and continued on with major reforms.<ref>{{cite web |language=French |publisher=Université de Sherbrooke |title=Daniel Johnson (1915-1968): Homme politique |url=http://bilan.usherbrooke.ca/bilan/pages/biographies/131.html |accessdate=January 10, 2021}}</ref>
[[File:René Lévesque BAnQ P243S1D865.jpg|thumb|left|[[René Lévesque]], one of the architects of the Quiet Revolution, and the Premier of Quebec's first modern sovereignist government]]

In 1967, President of France [[Charles de Gaulle]] visited Quebec, the first French head of state to do so, to attend [[Expo 67]]. There, he addressed a crowd of more than 100,000, making a speech ending with the exclamation: "{{lang|fr|cat=no|[[Vive le Québec libre]]!}}" ("Long live free Quebec"). This declaration had a profound effect on Quebec by bolstering the burgeoning modern [[Quebec sovereignty movement]] and resulting in a political crisis between France and Canada. Following this, various civilian groups developed, sometimes confronting public authority, for example in the [[October Crisis]] of 1970.<ref name="Tetley2006AppendixD2">{{Cite book|last=Tetley|first=William|url=https://www.mcgill.ca/maritimelaw/crisis/|title=The October Crisis, 1970: An Insider's View|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|year=2006|isbn=978-0-7735-3118-5|chapter=Appendix D: The Crisis per se (in chronological order&nbsp;— October 5, 1970, to December 29, 1970) – English text|oclc=300346822|author-link=William Tetley|access-date=August 22, 2017|archive-date=June 14, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090614020742/http://www.mcgill.ca/maritimelaw/crisis/|url-status=dead}}</ref> The meetings of the [[Estates General of French Canada]] in November 1967 marked a tipping point where relations between [[French America|francophones of America]], and especially francophones of Canada, ruptured. This breakdown greatly affected Quebec society's evolution.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/fr/article/etats-generaux-du-canada-francais |title=États généraux du Canada français|work= L'Encyclopédie Canadienne|date=July 29, 2019}}</ref>

In 1968, [[class conflict]]s and changes in mentalities intensified.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://academic.oup.com/ahr/article/123/3/773/5025397|title=Canada's '1968' and Historical Sensibilities|first=Bryan D.|last=Palmer|date=June 1, 2018|number=3|pages=773–778|doi=10.1093/ahr/123.3.773}}.</ref> That year, [[An Option for Quebec|Option Quebec]] sparked a constitutional debate on the political future of the province by pitting [[Federalism in Quebec|federalist]] and [[Quebec sovereignty movement|sovereignist]] doctrines against each other. In 1969, the federal [[Official Languages Act (Canada)|Official Languages Act]] was passed to introduce a linguistic context conducive to Quebec's development.<ref>{{cite web |date=February 6, 2018 |title=Grandeur et misère de l'utopie bilingue au Canada |url=https://www.ledevoir.com/opinion/idees/519398/grandeur-et-misere-de-l-utopie-bilingue-au-canada |website=Le Devoir}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Laurendeau |first=Paul |date=May 17, 2019 |title=Loi sur les langues officielles (1969) |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/fr/article/langues-officielles-1969-loi-sur-les |website=L'Encyclopédie Canadienne}}</ref> In 1973, the liberal government of [[Robert Bourassa]] initiated the [[James Bay Project]] on [[La Grande River]]. In 1974, it enacted the [[Official Language Act (Quebec)|Official Language Act]], which made French the official language of Quebec. In 1975, it established the [[Quebec Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms|Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms]] and the [[James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement]].

Quebec's first modern sovereignist government, led by [[René Lévesque]], materialized when the [[Parti Québécois]] was brought to power in the [[1976 Quebec general election]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Élections québécoises de 1976|url=http://bilan.usherbrooke.ca/bilan/pagesElections.jsp?annee=1976|publisher=Université de Sherbrooke|accessdate=September 12, 2021|archive-date=March 9, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309130041/http://bilan.usherbrooke.ca/bilan/pagesElections.jsp?annee=1976|url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[Charter of the French Language]] came into force the following year, which increased the use of French in the province. Between 1966 and 1969, the Estates General of French Canada confirmed the [[state of Quebec]] to be the [[nation-state|nation's fundamental political milieu]] and for it to have the right to [[self-determination]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Déclaration préliminaire sur le droit d'autodétermination|date=November 24, 1967}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|publisher=États généraux du Canada français|url=http://bibnum2.banq.qc.ca/bna/actionnationale/src/1968/02/03/02/1968-02-03-02.pdf |title=Débats sur la déclaration préliminaire : Partage des opinions|via= Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec|date=November 1967}}</ref> In the [[1980 Quebec referendum|1980 referendum]] on sovereignty, 60% of the votes were against.<ref>{{cite web|title=The 1980 Quebec Referendum|url=http://archives.cbc.ca/politics/constitution/topics/1092-6040/|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080531220955/http://archives.cbc.ca/politics/constitution/topics/1092-6040/|archivedate=May 31, 2008|accessdate=June 29, 2011|work=Facts and results|publisher=CBC}}</ref> After the referendum, Lévesque went back to Ottawa to start negotiating constitutional changes. On the night of November 4, 1981, the [[Kitchen Accord]] took place. Delegations from the other nine provinces and the federal government reached an agreement in the absence of Quebec's delegation, which had left for the night.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ledevoir.com/opinion/libre-opinion/496450/le-rapatriement-de-1982-trahison-et-fin-d-un-mythe|title=Le rapatriement de 1982: trahison et fin d'un mythe |last=Paquette |first=Gilbert |date=April 17, 2017 |website=Le Devoir}}</ref> Because of this, the National Assembly refused to recognize the new [[Constitution Act, 1982]], which patriated the Canadian constitution and made numerous modifications to it.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sqrc.gouv.qc.ca/affaires-intergouvernementales/positions-historiques/motions/1981-12-01.pdf |title=Résolution de l'Assemblée nationale du Québec sur les conditions sans lesquelles le Québec ne peut accepter le rapatriement de la Constitution canadienne, 1er décembre 1981 |publisher=Government of Quebec |accessdate=August 16, 2021}}</ref> The 1982 amendments apply to Quebec despite Quebec never having consented to it.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Constitution, Patriation of|encyclopedia=The Canadian Encyclopedia|url=http://thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/patriation-of-the-constitution/|last=Sheppard|first=Robert|date=May 4, 2020}}</ref>

Between 1982 and 1992, the Quebec government's attitude changed to prioritize reforming the federation. The subsequent attempts at constitutional amendments by the [[Brian Mulroney|Mulroney]] and Bourassa governments ended in failure with both the [[Meech Lake Accord]] of 1987 and the [[Charlottetown Accord]] of 1992, resulting in the creation of the [[Bloc Québécois]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Busta |last2=Hui |first2=Ann|first1=Shannon|title=Bloc Québécois through the years|work=The Globe and Mail |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/bloc-qubcois-through-the-years/article2008669/|url-status=dead|accessdate=June 29, 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110509013937/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/bloc-qubcois-through-the-years/article2008669/|archivedate=May 9, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/fr/article/accord-de-charlottetown|title=Accord de Charlottetown|encyclopedia=L'Encyclopédie Canadienne|date=May 7, 2020}}</ref> In 1995, Jacques Parizeau called a [[1995 Quebec referendum|referendum on Quebec's independence]] from Canada. This consultation ended in failure for sovereignists, though the outcome was very close: 50.6% "no" and 49.4% "yes".<ref name="1995 facts2">{{cite web|last=Directeur général des élections du Québec|title=Référendum de 1995|url=http://www.quebecpolitique.com/elections-et-referendums/referendums-quebecois/referendum-de-1995/|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808031154/http://www.quebecpolitique.com/elections-et-referendums/referendums-quebecois/referendum-de-1995/|archivedate=August 8, 2011|accessdate=June 29, 2011|work=Information and results|publisher=Quebec Politic}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |chapter=Les immigrants : sortir de l'ethnicité |title=Les raisons fortes: Nature et signification de l'appui à la souveraineté du Québec |last1=Gagné |first1=Gilles |last2=Langlois |first2=Simon |url=https://books.openedition.org/pum/12348?lang=fr |language=fr |publisher=University of Montreal Press |pages=101–109 |date=2002 |doi=10.4000/books.pum.12348 |isbn=9791036504556}}</ref> The [[Unity Rally]], a controversial event paid for by sponsors outside Quebec, supporting the "no" side, took place on the eve of the referendum.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://lactualite.com/actualites/referendum-de-1995-le-love-in-du-camp-du-non-naurait-pas-servi-a-grand-chose/ |title=Référendum de 1995: le «love-in» du camp du Non n'aurait pas servi à grand-chose |work=L'actualité |last=Lévesque |first=Catherine |agency=The Canadian Press |date=March 3, 2020}}</ref>

In 1998, following the [[Supreme Court of Canada]]'s decision on the [[Reference Re Secession of Quebec]], the Parliaments of Canada and Quebec defined the [[Clarity Act|legal frameworks]] within which their respective governments would act in another referendum. On October 30, 2003, the National Assembly voted unanimously to affirm "that the people of Québec form a nation".<ref>{{cite web |date=October 30, 2003 |title=Résolution unanime sur la nation québécoise |trans-title=Resolution by the National Assembly of Québec|url=http://www.saic.gouv.qc.ca/publications/resolutions/20031030_en.pdf|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130728013918/http://www.saic.gouv.qc.ca/publications/resolutions/20031030_en.pdf|archivedate=July 28, 2013|accessdate=September 29, 2013}}</ref> On November 27, 2006, the House of Commons passed a [[Québécois nation motion|symbolic motion]] declaring "that this House recognize that the Québécois form a nation within a united Canada."<ref>{{cite web|work=Hansard|title= 39th Parliament, 1st Session; No. 087|date= November 27, 2006|url=http://www.parl.gc.ca/HousePublications/Publication.aspx?DocId=2544166&File=0&Language=E&Mode=1&Parl=39&Pub=hansard&Ses=1#SOB-1798651|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002113653/http://www.parl.gc.ca/HousePublications/Publication.aspx?DocId=2544166&File=0&Language=E&Mode=1&Parl=39&Pub=hansard&Ses=1#SOB-1798651|archivedate=October 2, 2013}}</ref> In March 2007, the Parti Québécois was pushed back to official opposition in the National Assembly, with the Liberal party leading. During the [[2011 Canadian federal election]]s, Quebec voters rejected the Bloc Québécois in favour of the previously minor [[New Democratic Party]] (NDP). As the NDP's logo is orange, this was called the "orange wave".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ledevoir.com/opinion/idees/447949/elections-federales-retour-sur-la-vague-orange-de-2011|title=Retour sur la vague orange de 2011|website=Le Devoir |last=Rocher |first=François |date=August 20, 2015 }}</ref> After three subsequent Liberal governments, the Parti Québécois regained power in 2012 and its leader, [[Pauline Marois]], became the first female premier of Quebec.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Élections québécoises de 2012|url=http://bilan.usherbrooke.ca/bilan/pagesElections.jsp?annee=2012|accessdate=August 4, 2021|publisher=University of Sherbrooke|archive-date=September 23, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210923060037/http://bilan.usherbrooke.ca/bilan/pagesElections.jsp?annee=2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Liberal Party of Quebec then returned to power in 2014.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Élections québécoises de 2014|url=http://bilan.usherbrooke.ca/bilan/pagesElections.jsp?annee=2014|accessdate=August 4, 2021|publisher=University of Sherbrooke|archive-date=June 21, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210621230545/http://bilan.usherbrooke.ca/bilan/pagesElections.jsp?annee=2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2018, the [[Coalition Avenir Québec]] won the [[2018 Quebec general election|provincial general elections]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=International |first1=Radio Canada |title=Quebec’s provincial election: What does it signal for Canada, maybe the world? |url=https://www.rcinet.ca/en/2018/10/04/quebecs-provincial-election-what-does-it-signal-for-canada-maybe-the-world/ |website=RCI {{!}} English |date=4 October 2018}}</ref> Between 2020 and 2021, Quebec took measures to protect itself against the [[COVID-19 pandemic in Quebec|COVID-19 pandemic]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) in Québec |url=https://www.quebec.ca/en/health/health-issues/a-z/2019-coronavirus |website=Gouvernement du Québec |language=en}}</ref> In 2022, Coalition Avenir Québec, led by Quebec's premier [[François Legault]], increased its parliamentary majority in the [[2022 Quebec general election|provincial general elections.]]<ref>{{cite news |last1=Onishi |first1=Norimitsu |title=Embracing Nationalism, a Canadian Provincial Leader Wins Re-election |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/10/03/world/canada/quebec-general-election-results.html |work=The New York Times |date=4 October 2022}}</ref>

<gallery caption="Territorial evolution of Quebec" widths="150px" heights="100px" class="center">
File:Canada (New France) Location Map.svg|[[Canada (New France)|Canada]] in the 18th century.
File:Province of Quebec 1763, 1774, 1784.gif|The [[Province of Quebec (1763–1791)|Province of Quebec]] from 1763 to 1783.
File:Évolution territoriale du Bas-Canada.gif|[[Lower Canada]] from 1791 to 1841. ([[Patriots' War]] in 1837, [[Canada East]] in 1841)
File:Évolution territoriale du Québec.gif|Quebec from 1867 to 1927. 
File:Disputed territory between Quebec and Labrador map-blank.svg|Quebec today. Quebec (in blue) has a border dispute with [[Newfoundland and Labrador|Labrador]] (in red).
</gallery>