Philippines Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! == History == {{Main|History of the Philippines}} {{For timeline|Timeline of Philippine history}} === Prehistory (pre–900) === {{Main|Prehistory of the Philippines}} There is [[Archaeology of the Philippines|evidence]] of early [[hominins]] living in what is now the Philippines as early as 709,000 years ago.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ingicco |first1=T. |last2=van den Bergh |first2=G. D. |last3=Jago-on |first3=C. |last4=Bahain |first4=J. |last5=Chacón |first5=M. G. |last6=Amano |first6=N. |last7=Forestier |first7=H. |last8=King |first8=C. |last9=Manalo |first9=K. |last10=Nomade |first10=S. |last11=Pereira |first11=A. |last12=Reyes |first12=M. C. |last13=Sémah |first13=A. |last14=Shao |first14=Q. |last15=Voinchet |first15=P. |date=May 1, 2018 |title=Earliest known hominin activity in the Philippines by 709 thousand years ago |url=https://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=6441&context=smhpapers |journal=Nature |publisher=[[University of Wollongong]] |volume=557 |issue=7704 |pages=233–237 |bibcode=2018Natur.557..233I |doi=10.1038/s41586-018-0072-8 |pmid=29720661 |s2cid=256771231 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190429133325/https://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=6441&context=smhpapers |archive-date=April 29, 2019 |first16=C. |last16=Falguères |first17=P.C.H. |last17=Albers |first18=M. |last18=Lising |first19=G. |last19=Lyras |first20=D. |last20=Yurnaldi |first21=P. |last21=Rochette |first22=A. |last22=Bautista |first23=J. |last23=de Vos}}</ref> A small number of bones from [[Callao Cave]] potentially represent an otherwise unknown species, ''[[Homo luzonensis]]'', who lived 50,000 to 67,000 years ago.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news||last1=Greshko |first1=Michael |last2=Wei-Haas |first2=Maya |date=April 10, 2019 |title=New species of ancient human discovered in the Philippines |work=[[National Geographic]] |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2019/04/new-species-ancient-human-discovered-luzon-philippines-homo-luzonensis/ |access-date=October 24, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190410173110/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2019/04/new-species-ancient-human-discovered-luzon-philippines-homo-luzonensis/ |archive-date=April 10, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news||last1=Rincon |first1=Paul |date=April 10, 2019 |title=New human species found in Philippines |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-47873072 |access-date=October 24, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190410192730/https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-47873072 |archive-date=April 10, 2019 |author-link1=Paul Rincon}}</ref> The oldest [[modern human]] remains on the islands are from the [[Tabon Caves]] of [[Palawan]], [[U/Th-dated]] to 47,000 ± 11–10,000 years ago.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Détroit |first1=Florent |last2=Dizon |first2=Eusebio |last3=Falguères |first3=Christophe |last4=Hameau |first4=Sébastien |last5=Ronquillo |first5=Wilfredo |last6=Sémah |first6=François |date=2004 |title=Upper Pleistocene ''Homo sapiens'' from the Tabon cave (Palawan, The Philippines): description and dating of new discoveries |url=http://fdetroit.free.fr/IMG/pdf/Detroit_etal_04_Tabon2.pdf |journal=Human Palaeontology and Prehistory |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |volume=3 |issue=2004 |pages=705–712 |bibcode=2004CRPal...3..705D |doi=10.1016/j.crpv.2004.06.004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150218164554/http://fdetroit.free.fr/IMG/pdf/Detroit_etal_04_Tabon2.pdf |archive-date=February 18, 2015 |doi-access=free}}</ref> [[Tabon Man]] is presumably a [[Negrito]], among the archipelago's earliest inhabitants descended from the first human migrations out of Africa via the coastal route along [[South Asia|southern Asia]] to the now-sunken landmasses of [[Sundaland]] and [[Sahul]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jett |first=Stephen C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EgOUDgAAQBAJ |title=Ancient Ocean Crossings: Reconsidering the Case for Contacts with the Pre-Columbian Americas |date=2017 |publisher=[[University of Alabama Press]] |isbn=978-0-8173-1939-7 |location=Tuscaloosa, Ala. |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=EgOUDgAAQBAJ&pg=168 168–171] |access-date=May 23, 2020 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203072920/https://books.google.com/books?id=EgOUDgAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> The first Austronesians reached the Philippines from Taiwan around 2200 BC, settling the [[Batanes]] Islands (where they built stone fortresses known as ''[[ijang]]s'')<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/2005-006.pdf |title=The Protected Landscape Approach: Linking Nature, Culture and Community |date=2005 |publisher=[[International Union for Conservation of Nature|IUCN]] |isbn=978-2-8317-0797-6 |editor-last=Brown |editor-first=Jessica |location=Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, England |pages=101–102 |language=en |access-date=March 19, 2023 |editor-last2=Mitchell |editor-first2=Nora J. |editor-last3=Beresford |editor-first3=Michael |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180408232535/https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/2005-006.pdf |archive-date=April 8, 2018}}</ref> and northern [[Luzon]]. [[Philippine jade culture|Jade artifacts]] have been dated to 2000 BC,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Scott |first=William Henry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FSlwAAAAMAAJ |title=Prehispanic Source Materials for the Study of Philippine History |publisher=New Day Publishers |year=1984 |isbn=978-971-10-0227-5 |location=Quezon City, Philippines |page=17 |author-link=William Henry Scott (historian) |access-date=April 20, 2023 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203072920/https://books.google.com/books?id=FSlwAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ness |first=Immanuel |editor-last1=Bellwood |editor-first1=Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2HMTBwAAQBAJ |title=The Global Prehistory of Human Migration |date=2014 |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |isbn=978-1-118-97059-1 |location=Chichester, West Sussex, England |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2HMTBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA289 289] |author-link1=Immanuel Ness |editor-link1=Peter Bellwood |access-date=September 2, 2020 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203072922/https://books.google.com/books?id=2HMTBwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> with [[lingling-o]] jade items made in Luzon with raw materials from Taiwan.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hung |first1=Hsiao-Chun |last2=Iizuka |first2=Yoshiyuki |last3=Bellwood |first3=Peter |last4=Nguyen |first4=Kim Dung |last5=Bellina |first5=Bérénice |last6=Silapanth |first6=Praon |last7=Dizon |first7=Eusebio |last8=Santiago |first8=Rey |last9=Datan |first9=Ipoi |last10=Manton |first10=Jonathan H. |date=December 11, 2007 |title=Ancient jades map 3,000 years of prehistoric exchange in Southeast Asia |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]] |publisher=[[National Academy of Sciences]] |volume=104 |issue=50 |pages=19745–19750 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0707304104 |pmc=2148369 |pmid=18048347 |doi-access=free}}</ref> By 1000 BC, the inhabitants of the archipelago had developed into four societies: [[hunter-gatherer]] tribes, warrior societies, highland [[plutocracies]], and port principalities.<ref name="Legarda-2001">{{Cite journal |last=Legarda |first=Benito Jr. |author-link=Benito J. Legarda |year=2001 |title=Cultural Landmarks and their Interactions with Economic Factors in the Second Millennium in the Philippines |journal=Kinaadman (Wisdom): A Journal of the Southern Philippines |publisher=[[Xavier University – Ateneo de Cagayan]] |volume=23 |page=40}}</ref> === Early states (900–1565) === {{main|History of the Philippines (900–1565)}} The earliest known surviving written record in the Philippines is the early-10th-century AD [[Laguna Copperplate Inscription]], which was written in [[Old Malay]] using the early [[Kawi alphabet|Kawi]] script with a number of technical [[Sanskrit]] words and [[Old Javanese]] or [[Old Tagalog]] [[Filipino styles and honorifics|honorifics]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Postma |first=Antoon |author-link=Antoon Postma |date=1992 |title=The Laguna Copper-Plate Inscription: Text and Commentary |url=http://www.philippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/article/download/1033/1018 |journal=[[Philippine Studies (journal)|Philippine Studies]] |location=Quezon City, Philippines |publisher=[[Ateneo de Manila University]] |volume=40 |issue=2 |pages=182–203 |issn=0031-7837 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208053836/http://www.philippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/article/download/1033/1018 |archive-date=December 8, 2015}}</ref> By the 14th century, several large coastal settlements emerged as trading centers and became the focus of [[Cultural achievements of pre-colonial Philippines|societal changes]].<ref name="deGraaf-1977">{{Cite book |last1=de Graaf |first1=Hermanus Johannes |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RYQeAAAAIAAJ |title=Geschichte: Lieferung 2 |last2=Kennedy |first2=Joseph |last3=Scott |first3=William Henry |date=1977 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |isbn=978-90-04-04859-1 |location=Leiden, Switzerland |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=RYQeAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA198 198] |language=en |author-link3=William Henry Scott (historian) |access-date=February 18, 2023 |archive-date=March 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306102637/https://books.google.com/books?id=RYQeAAAAIAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> Some [[polities]] had exchanges with other states throughout Asia.<ref name="Junker-1999">{{Cite book |last=Junker |first=Laura Lee |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yO2yG0nxTtsC |title=Raiding, Trading, and Feasting: The Political Economy of Philippine Chiefdoms |date=1999 |publisher=[[University of Hawaiʻi Press]] |isbn=978-0-8248-2035-0 |location=Honolulu, Hawaii |access-date=August 22, 2020 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203072919/https://books.google.com/books?id=yO2yG0nxTtsC |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|page=3}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nadeau |first=Kathleen M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kAINJWo4IJ4C |title=Liberation Theology in the Philippines: Faith in a Revolution |date=2002 |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |isbn=978-0-275-97198-4 |location=Westport, Conn. |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kAINJWo4IJ4C&pg=PA8 8] |language=en |access-date=February 18, 2023 |archive-date=March 17, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317084801/https://books.google.com/books?id=kAINJWo4IJ4C |url-status=live }}</ref> Trade with China is believed to have begun during the [[Tang dynasty]], and expanded during the [[Song dynasty]];<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6kDm5d3cMIYC |title=Southeast Asia: From Prehistory to History |date=2004 |publisher=[[RoutledgeCurzon]] |isbn=978-0-415-29777-6 |editor-last=Glover |editor-first=Ian |location=London, England |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6kDm5d3cMIYC&pg=PA267 267] |author-link2=Peter Bellwood |editor-last2=Bellwood |editor-first2=Peter}}</ref> by the second millennium AD, some polities were part of the [[tributary system of China]].<ref name="Scott-1994">{{Cite book |last=Scott |first=William Henry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=15KZU-yMuisC |title=Barangay: Sixteenth-century Philippine Culture and Society |publisher=[[Ateneo de Manila University Press]] |year=1994 |isbn=978-971-550-135-4 |location=Quezon City, Philippines |author-link=William Henry Scott (historian) |access-date=October 18, 2015 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203072920/https://books.google.com/books?id=15KZU-yMuisC |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|pages=177–178}}<ref name="Junker-1999" />{{rp|page=3}} Indian cultural traits such as linguistic terms and religious practices [[Indian influences in early Philippine polities|began to spread]] in the Philippines during the 14th century, probably via the Hindu [[Majapahit|Majapahit Empire]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Philippines |encyclopedia=Concise Encyclopedia of World History |publisher=[[Atlantic Books|Atlantic Publishers & Distributors]] |location=New Delhi, India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gGKsS-9h4BYC |last=Ramirez-Faria |first=Carlos |date=2007 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=gGKsS-9h4BYC&pg=PA560 560] |isbn=978-81-269-0775-5 |access-date=February 18, 2023 |archive-date=January 17, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117131629/https://books.google.com/books?id=gGKsS-9h4BYC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Evangelista |first=Alfredo E. |date=1965 |title=Identifying Some Intrusive Archaeological Materials Found in Philippine Proto-historic Sites |url=https://asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-03-01-1965/Evangelista.pdf |journal=Asian Studies: Journal of Critical Perspectives on Asia |publisher=[[University of the Philippines Asian Center|Asian Center]], [[University of the Philippines]] |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=87–88 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230429072742/https://asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-03-01-1965/Evangelista.pdf |archive-date=April 29, 2023 |access-date=April 29, 2023}}</ref> By the 15th century, Islam was established in the [[Sulu Archipelago]] and spread from there.<ref name="deGraaf-1977" /> Polities founded in the Philippines between the 10th and 16th centuries include [[Maynila (historical polity)|Maynila]],<ref name="Ring-1996">{{Cite book |last1=Ring |first1=Trudy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vWLRxJEU49EC |title=International Dictionary of Historic Places: Asia and Oceania |last2=Salkin |first2=Robert M. |last3=La Boda |first3=Sharon |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-1-884964-04-6 |location=Chicago, Ill. |pages=565–569 |name-list-style=amp |access-date=August 22, 2020 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203072922/https://books.google.com/books?id=vWLRxJEU49EC |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Tondo (historical polity)|Tondo]], [[Namayan]], [[Caboloan|Pangasinan]], [[Cebu (historical state)|Cebu]], [[Butuan (historical polity)|Butuan]], [[Sultanate of Maguindanao|Maguindanao]], [[Confederate States of Lanao|Lanao]], [[Sultanate of Sulu|Sulu]], and [[Ma-i]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/historical-atlas-of-the-republic/page/n65/mode/2up |title=Historical Atlas of the Republic |date=2016 |publisher=[[Presidential Communications Group|Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office]] |isbn=978-971-95551-6-2 |editor-last=Quezon |editor-first=Manuel L. III |editor-link=Manolo Quezon |location=Manila, Philippines |page=64 |editor-last2=Goitia |editor-first2=Pocholo}}</ref> The early polities typically had a three-tier social structure: nobility, freemen, and dependent debtor-bondsmen.<ref name="Junker-1999" />{{rp|page=3}}<ref name="Wernstedt-1967">{{cite book |last1=Wernstedt |first1=Frederick L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6Pn0Pfh1Cl0C |title=The Philippine Island World: A Physical, Cultural, and Regional Geography |last2=Spencer |first2=Joseph Earle |date=January 1967 |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |location=Berkeley, Calif. |isbn=978-0-520-03513-3 |access-date=August 22, 2020 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203072939/https://books.google.com/books?id=6Pn0Pfh1Cl0C |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6Pn0Pfh1Cl0C&pg=PA672|name=672}}}} Among the nobility were leaders known as [[datu]]s, who were responsible for ruling autonomous groups ([[Barangay state|barangays]] or dulohan).<ref>{{cite book|last=Arcilla |first=José S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uxEYobbU-D8C |title=An Introduction to Philippine History |date=1998 |edition=Fourth enlarged |publisher=[[Ateneo de Manila University Press]] |location=Quezon City, Philippines |isbn=978-971-550-261-0 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uxEYobbU-D8C&pg=PA15 15]}}</ref> When the barangays banded together to form a larger settlement or a geographically looser alliance,<ref name="Junker-1999" />{{rp|page=3}}<ref>{{cite book|last=Decasa |first=George C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hYNqz-1ayssC |title=The Qur'anic Concept of Umma and Its Function in Philippine Muslim Society |series=Interreligious and Intercultural Investigations |volume=1 |date=1999 |publisher=[[Pontificia Università Gregoriana]] |location=Rome, Italy |isbn=978-88-7652-812-5 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hYNqz-1ayssC&pg=PA328 328] |language=en}}</ref> their more-esteemed members would be recognized as a "[[Paramount rulers in early Philippine history|paramount datu]]",<ref name="Newson">{{cite book |last=Newson |first=Linda A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A40BEAAAQBAJ |title=Conquest and Pestilence in the Early Spanish Philippines |date=April 16, 2009 |publisher=[[University of Hawaiʻi Press]] |location=Honolulu, Hawaii |isbn=978-0-8248-6197-1 |access-date=February 5, 2021 |archive-date=March 8, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230308195926/https://books.google.com/books?id=A40BEAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A40BEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA58|name=58}}}}<ref name="Legarda-2001" /> [[rajah]] or [[sultan]],<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Carley |editor-first1=Michael |editor-last2=Jenkins |editor-first2=Paul |editor-last3=Smith |editor-first3=Harry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ycT9AQAAQBAJ |title=Urban Development and Civil Society: The Role of Communities in Sustainable Cities |year=2013 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=Sterling, Va. |isbn=978-1-134-20050-4 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ycT9AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA108 108] |chapter=Chapter 7 |orig-date=2001 |access-date=September 28, 2020 |archive-date=March 17, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317140423/https://books.google.com/books?id=ycT9AQAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> and would rule the community.<ref>{{cite book|last=Tan |first=Samuel K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pw5FWmdNmj8C |title=A History of the Philippines |date=2008 |publisher=[[University of the Philippines Press]] |location=Quezon City, Philippines |isbn=978-971-542-568-1 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pw5FWmdNmj8C&pg=PA37 37] |author-link1=Samuel K. Tan}}</ref> Population density is thought to have been low during the 14th to 16th centuries<ref name="Newson" />{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A40BEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA18|name=18}}}} due to the [[Typhoon#Frequency|frequency of typhoons]] and the Philippines' location on the Pacific [[Ring of Fire]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bankoff |first1=Greg |editor-last1=Boomgaard |editor-first1=Peter |title=A World of Water: Rain, Rivers and Seas in Southeast Asian Histories |series=Verhandelingen van het Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde |volume=240 |publisher=[[KITLV Press]] |location=Leiden, Netherlands |isbn=978-90-04-25401-5 |date=January 1, 2007 |pages=153–184 |chapter=Storms of history: Water, hazard and society in the Philippines: 1565-1930 |jstor=10.1163/j.ctt1w76vd0.9 |jstor-access=free}}</ref> Portuguese explorer [[Ferdinand Magellan]] arrived in 1521, claimed the islands for Spain, and was killed by [[Lapulapu]]'s men in the [[Battle of Mactan]].<ref name="Woods-2006">{{cite book |last=Woods |first=Damon L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Z-n_kDTxf0C |title=The Philippines: A Global Studies Handbook |date=2006 |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |location=Santa Barbara, Calif. |isbn=978-1-85109-675-6 |language=en |author-link1=Damon Woods |access-date=December 6, 2020 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073501/https://books.google.com/books?id=2Z-n_kDTxf0C |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Z-n_kDTxf0C&pg=PT46|name=21}}}}<ref name="Guillermo-2012">{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Guillermo |first=Artemio R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wmgX9M_yETIC |title=Historical Dictionary of the Philippines |edition=Third |series=Historical Dictionaries of Asia, Oceania, and the Middle East |date=2012 |publisher=[[The Scarecrow Press]] |location=Lanham, Md. |isbn=978-0-8108-7246-2 |access-date=September 28, 2020 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073356/https://books.google.com/books?id=wmgX9M_yETIC |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wmgX9M_yETIC&pg=PA261|name=261}}}} === Spanish and American colonial rule (1565–1946) === {{main|History of the Philippines (1565–1898)|History of the Philippines (1898–1946)}} [[File:Vista del Puente de Manila (1847).png|alt=See caption|thumb|[[Manila]], 1847]] Unification and colonization by the [[Crown of Castile]] began when Spanish explorer [[Miguel López de Legazpi]] arrived from [[New Spain]] ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''Nueva España'') in 1565.<ref>{{cite book | last=Wing | first=J.T. | title=Roots of Empire: Forests and State Power in Early Modern Spain, c.1500–1750 | publisher=Brill | series=Brill's Series in the History of the Environment | year=2015 | isbn=978-90-04-26137-2 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7dQuBgAAQBAJ | page=[https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=7dQuBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA109 109] | quote=At the time of Miguel López de Legazpi's voyage in 1564-5, the Philippines were not a unified polity or nation. | access-date=February 3, 2024 | archive-date=January 28, 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240128213911/https://books.google.com/books?id=7dQuBgAAQBAJ | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Carson |first1=Arthur L. |title=Higher Education in the Philippines |series=Bulletin |date=1961 |issue=29 |url=http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED544128.pdf |publisher=[[Office of Education]], [[United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare]] |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=<!-- ISBN unspecified --> |oclc=755650 |page=7 |access-date=April 2, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150413085104/http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED544128.pdf |archive-date=April 13, 2015}}</ref><ref name="deBorja-2005">{{cite book|last=de Borja |first=Marciano R. |url=https://b-ok.cc/book/2577458/ffb6ff |title=Basques In The Philippines |series=The Basque Series |date=2005 |publisher=[[University of Nevada Press]] |location=Reno, Nev. |isbn=978-0-87417-590-5 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220326224340/https://b-ok.cc/book/2577458/ffb6ff |archive-date=March 26, 2022 |access-date=April 25, 2023}}</ref>{{rp|pages=20–23}} Many [[Filipinos]] were brought to New Spain [[History of Spanish slavery in the Philippines|as slaves]] and forced crew.<ref>{{cite book |last=Seijas |first=Tatiana |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YCWjAwAAQBAJ |title=Asian Slaves in Colonial Mexico: From Chinos to Indians |series=Cambridge Latin American Studies |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2014 |location=New York, N.Y. |isbn=978-1-107-06312-9 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=YCWjAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA36 36] |chapter=The Diversity and Reach of the Manila Slave Market |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YCWjAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA32 |access-date=March 19, 2023 |archive-date=February 13, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230213113750/https://books.google.com/books?id=YCWjAwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Intramuros|Spanish Manila]] became the capital of the [[Spanish East Indies]] in 1571,<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Beaule |editor-first1=Christine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1cfcDwAAQBAJ |title=The Global Spanish Empire: Five Hundred Years of Place Making and Pluralism |editor-last2=Douglass |editor-first2=John G. |date=April 21, 2020 |publisher=[[University of Arizona Press]] |location=Tucson, Ariz. |isbn=978-0-8165-4084-6 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1cfcDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA204 204] |language=en |access-date=March 21, 2023 |archive-date=March 21, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230321081230/https://books.google.com/books?id=1cfcDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Santiago |first=Fernando A. Jr. |year=2006 |title=Isang Maikling Kasaysayan ng Pandacan, Maynila 1589–1898 |url=https://ejournals.ph/article.php?id=7887 |journal=Malay |language=fil |publisher=[[De La Salle University]] |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=70–87 |access-date=July 18, 2008 |via=Philippine E-Journals |issn=2243-7851 |archive-date=August 21, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200821002744/https://ejournals.ph/article.php?id=7887 |url-status=live }}</ref> Spanish territories in Asia and the Pacific.<ref>{{cite book|last=Andrade |first=Tonio |url=http://www.gutenberg-e.org/andrade/ |title=How Taiwan Became Chinese: Dutch, Spanish and Han colonialization in the Seventeenth Century |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |location=New York |isbn=978-0-231-12855-1 |year=2005 |chapter=Chapter 4: La Isla Hermosa: The Rise of the Spanish Colony in Northern Taiwan |author-link=Tonio Andrade |chapter-url=http://www.gutenberg-e.org/andrade/andrade04.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071121160327/http://www.gutenberg-e.org/andrade/andrade04.html |archive-date=November 21, 2007 |via=Gutenberg-e}}</ref> The Spanish invaded local states using the principle of [[divide and rule|divide and conquer]],<ref name="Guillermo-2012" />{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wmgX9M_yETIC&pg=PA374|name=374}}}} bringing most of what is the present-day Philippines under one unified administration.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Giráldez |first1=Arturo |title=The Age of Trade: The Manila Galleons and the Dawn of the Global Economy |date=March 19, 2015 |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |location=Lanham, Md. |isbn=978-1-4422-4352-1 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6mCGBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 2] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6mCGBwAAQBAJ |language=en |access-date=April 2, 2023 |archive-date=April 2, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230402112011/https://books.google.com/books?id=6mCGBwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Acabado |first=Stephen |date=March 1, 2017 |title=The Archaeology of Pericolonialism: Responses of the "Unconquered" to Spanish Conquest and Colonialism in Ifugao, Philippines |url=https://escholarship.org/content/qt3tp1p8m3/qt3tp1p8m3.pdf?t=qa7wdn |journal=[[International Journal of Historical Archaeology]] |publisher=[[Springer New York]] |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=1–26 |doi=10.1007/s10761-016-0342-9 |s2cid=254541436 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201106150313/https://escholarship.org/content/qt3tp1p8m3/qt3tp1p8m3.pdf?t=qa7wdn |archive-date=November 6, 2020 |via=Springer Link}}</ref> Disparate barangays were deliberately [[Reductions|consolidated into towns]], where [[Friars in Spanish Philippines|Catholic missionaries]] could more easily convert their inhabitants to [[Christianity]],<ref name="Abinales-2005">{{cite book |last1=Abinales |first1=Patricio N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xiOQdEzgP9kC |title=State and Society in the Philippines |last2=Amoroso |first2=Donna J. |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |location=Lanham, Md. |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7425-1024-1 |access-date=September 28, 2020 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073346/https://books.google.com/books?id=xiOQdEzgP9kC |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xiOQdEzgP9kC&pg=PA53|name=53}}, {{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xiOQdEzgP9kC&pg=PA68|name=68}}}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Constantino |first1=Renato |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kdhWCgAAQBAJ |title=A History of the Philippines: From the Spanish Colonization to the Second World War |last2=Constantino |first2=Letizia R. |publisher=[[Monthly Review Press]] |location=New York, N.Y. |year=1975 |isbn=978-0-85345-394-9 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kdhWCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA58 58–59] |author-link1=Renato Constantino |access-date=January 19, 2021 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073504/https://books.google.com/books?id=kdhWCgAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> which was initially [[Religious Syncretism|Syncretist]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schumacher |first1=John N. |title=Syncretism in Philippine Catholicism: Its Historical Causes |journal=[[Philippine Studies (journal)|Philippine Studies]] |volume=32 |issue=3 |publisher=[[Ateneo de Manila University Press]] |location=Quezon City, Philippines |date=1984 |page=254 |url=http://philippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/article/view/3833/4054 |issn=2244-1093 |oclc=6015358201 |jstor=42632710 |author-link1=John N. Schumacher |access-date=October 5, 2023 |archive-date=October 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231006144446/http://philippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/article/view/3833/4054 |url-status=live }}</ref> From 1565 to 1821, the Philippines was governed as a territory of the [[Mexico City]]-based [[New Spain|Viceroyalty of New Spain]]; it was then administered from [[Madrid]] after the [[Mexican War of Independence]].<ref name="Halili-2004">{{cite book |last=Halili |first=Maria Christine N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gUt5v8ET4QYC |title=Philippine History |publisher=[[REX Book Store, Inc.]] |location=Manila, Philippines |year=2004 |edition=First |isbn=978-971-23-3934-9 |access-date=May 23, 2020 |archive-date=December 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230123021/https://books.google.com/books?id=gUt5v8ET4QYC |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gUt5v8ET4QYC&pg=PA81|name=81}}}} Manila became the western hub of [[Spanish treasure fleet|trans-Pacific trade]]<ref>{{cite book|last=Kane |first=Herb Kawainui |title=Hawaiʻ Chronicles: Island History from the Pages of Honolulu Magazine |publisher=[[University of Hawaiʻi Press]] |location=Honolulu, Hawaii |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-8248-1829-6 |editor-last=Bob Dye |volume=I |pages=25–32 |chapter=The Manila Galleons |author-link=Herb Kawainui Kane}}</ref> by [[Manila galleon]]s built in [[Bicol Region|Bicol]] and [[Cavite]].<ref>{{cite report|type=Conference proceeding |last=Bolunia |first=Mary Jane Louise A. |chapter=Astilleros: the Spanish shipyards of Sorsogon |chapter-url=http://www.themua.org/collections/files/original/34a74c76efdb951655b9bde1213812dc.pdf |title=Proceedings of the 2014 Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Conference; Session 5: Early Modern Colonialism in the Asia-Pacific Region |url=http://www.themua.org/collections/collections/show/13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150413233643/http://www.themua.org/collections/files/original/34a74c76efdb951655b9bde1213812dc.pdf |archive-date=April 13, 2015 |access-date=October 26, 2015 |publisher=Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Planning Committee |page=1 |location=Honolulu, Hawaii |oclc=892536655 |via=The Museum of Underwater Archaeology}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=McCarthy |first=William J. |date=December 1, 1995 |title=The Yards at Cavite: Shipbuilding in the Early Colonial Philippines |journal=[[International Journal of Maritime History]] |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=149–162 |doi=10.1177/084387149500700208 |s2cid=163709949}}</ref> During its rule, Spain nearly bankrupted its treasury quelling [[Philippine revolts against Spain|indigenous revolts]]<ref name="Halili-2004" />{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gUt5v8ET4QYC&pg=PA111|name=111–122}}}} and defending against external military attacks,<ref name="Ooi-2004">{{cite book |editor-last1=Ooi |editor-first1=Keat Gin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC |title=Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor |date=2004 |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |location=Santa Barbara, Calif. |isbn=978-1-57607-770-2 |access-date=January 29, 2021 |archive-date=January 16, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116094029/https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC&pg=PA1077|name=1077}}}}<ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Closmann |editor-first=Charles Edwin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=alK4QtqHpyAC&pg=PA36 |title=War and the Environment: Military Destruction in the Modern Age |date=2009 |publisher=[[Texas A&M University Press]] |location=College Station, Tex. |isbn=978-1-60344-380-7 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=alK4QtqHpyAC&pg=PA36 36] |language=en |access-date=February 18, 2023 |archive-date=March 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306102727/https://books.google.com/books?id=alK4QtqHpyAC&pg=PA36 |url-status=live }}</ref> including [[Piracy in the Sulu and Celebes Seas|Moro piracy]],<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Klein |editor-first1=Bernhard |editor-last2=Mackenthun |editor-first2=Gesa |title=Sea Changes: Historicizing the Ocean |date=August 21, 2012 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=New York, N.Y. |isbn=978-1-135-94046-1 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kbntzV53vZAC&pg=PA63 63–66] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kbntzV53vZAC |access-date=August 11, 2023 |language=en |archive-date=August 11, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811080240/https://books.google.com/books?id=kbntzV53vZAC |url-status=live }}</ref> a 17th-century [[Battles of La Naval de Manila|war against the Dutch]], 18th-century [[British occupation of Manila]], and conflict with Muslims in the south.<ref name="Dolan-1991">{{cite book|date=1991 |editor-last=Dolan |editor-first=Ronald E. |title=Philippines |series=Country Studies/Area Handbook Series |url=https://countrystudies.us/philippines/41.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051109092341/http://countrystudies.us/philippines/ |archive-date=November 9, 2005 |access-date=February 13, 2023 |via=Country Studies |publisher=[[U.S. Government Publishing Office|GPO]] for the [[Library of Congress]] |location=Washington, D.C.}}</ref>{{rp|loc={{plain link|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060927161256/http://countrystudies.us/philippines/4.htm|name=4}}}}{{undue weight inline|date=August 2023|reason=Article assertions here may be [[WP:UNDUE]] in not considering impact of the [[Seven Year War]] on the Spanish treasury – I'm not enough of a historian to judge.}} Administration of the Philippines was considered a drain on the economy of New Spain,<ref name="Ooi-2004" />{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC&pg=PA1077|name=1077}}}} and abandoning it or trading it for other territory was debated. This course of action was opposed because of the islands' economic potential, security, and the desire to continue religious conversion in the region.<ref name="Newson" />{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A40BEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA7|name=7–8}}}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Crossley |first=John Newsome |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jQmiAgAAQBAJ |title=Hernando de los Ríos Coronel and the Spanish Philippines in the Golden Age |date=July 28, 2013 |publisher=[[Ashgate Publishing|Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.]] |location=London, England |isbn=978-1-4094-8242-0 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jQmiAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA168 168–169] |access-date=January 13, 2021 |archive-date=February 11, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211124615/https://books.google.com/books?id=jQmiAgAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> The colony survived on an annual subsidy from the Spanish crown<ref name="Ooi-2004" />{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC&pg=PA1077|name=1077}}}} averaging 250,000 pesos,<ref name="Newson" />{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A40BEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA8|name=8}}}} usually paid as 75 tons of silver bullion from the Americas.<ref>{{cite book|last=Cole |first=Jeffrey A. |title=The Potosí Mita, 1573–1700: Compulsory Indian Labor in the Andes |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |location=Stanford, Calif. |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-8047-1256-9 |page=20}}</ref> [[British occupation of Manila|British forces occupied Manila]] from 1762 to 1764 during the [[Seven Years' War]], and Spanish rule was restored with the [[Treaty of Paris (1763)|1763 Treaty of Paris]].<ref name="deBorja-2005" />{{rp|pages=81–83}} The Spanish considered their war with the Muslims in Southeast Asia an extension of the ''[[Reconquista]]''.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Hoadley |editor-first1=Stephen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5P9bgGxfYKUC |title=Asian Security Reassessed |editor-last2=Ruland |editor-first2=Jurgen |date=2006 |publisher=[[Institute of Southeast Asian Studies]] |location=Singapore |isbn=978-981-230-400-1 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5P9bgGxfYKUC&pg=PA215 215] |language=en |access-date=March 19, 2023 |archive-date=March 19, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230319192304/https://books.google.com/books?id=5P9bgGxfYKUC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Hefner |editor-first1=Robert W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_kQ4yo-GIWUC |title=Islam in an Era of Nation-States: Politics and Religious Renewal in Muslim Southeast Asia |editor-last2=Horvatich |editor-first2=Patricia |date=September 1, 1997 |publisher=[[University of Hawaiʻi Press]] |location=Honolulu, Hawaii |isbn=978-0-8248-1957-6 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_kQ4yo-GIWUC&pg=PA43 43–44] |language=en |access-date=March 19, 2023 |archive-date=March 19, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230319192304/https://books.google.com/books?id=_kQ4yo-GIWUC |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Spanish–Moro conflict]] lasted for several hundred years; Spain conquered portions of [[Mindanao]] and [[Jolo]] during the last quarter of the 19th century,<ref>{{cite report|last=United States War Department |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g8FMAAAAYAAJ |title=Annual Report of the Secretary of War |volume=III |date=1903 |publisher=[[U.S. Government Printing Office]] |location=Washington, D.C. |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=g8FMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA379 379–398] |author-link=United States Department of War}}</ref> and the Muslim [[Moro people|Moro]] in the [[Sultanate of Sulu]] acknowledged Spanish sovereignty.<ref>{{cite book |last=Warren |first=James Francis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VUZq93ydrrwC |title=The Sulu Zone, 1768–1898: The Dynamics of External Trade, Slavery, and Ethnicity in the Transformation of a Southeast Asian Maritime State |date=2007 |edition=Second |publisher=[[NUS Press]] |location=Singapore |isbn=978-9971-69-386-2 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VUZq93ydrrwC&pg=PA124 124] |access-date=August 22, 2020 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073403/https://books.google.com/books?id=VUZq93ydrrwC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Ramón de Dalmau y de Olivart |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l0gMAQAAMAAJ |title=Colección de los Tratados, Convenios y Documentos Internacionales Celebrados por Nuestros Gobiernos Con los Estados Extranjeros Desde el Reinado de Doña Isabel II Hasta Nuestros Días, Vol. 4: Acompañados de Notas Historico-Criticas Sobre Su Negociación y Complimiento y Cotejados Con los Textos Originales, Publicada de Real Orden |year=1893 |publisher=El Progreso Editorial |location=Madrid, Spain |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=l0gMAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA120 120–123] |language=es |access-date=June 27, 2020 |archive-date=February 11, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211124613/https://books.google.com/books?id=l0gMAQAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[File:Ilustrados 1890.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|alt=Photo of a large group of men on steps. Some are seated, and others are standing; several are wearing top hats.|''[[Ilustrado]]s'' in [[Madrid]] around 1890]] Philippine ports opened to world trade during the 19th century, and Filipino society began to change.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Castro |first=Amado A. |date=1982 |title=Foreign Trade and Economic Welfare in the Last Half-Century of Spanish Rule |url=https://econ.upd.edu.ph/pre/index.php/pre/article/download/361/274 |journal=Philippine Review of Economics |publisher=[[University of the Philippines School of Economics]] |volume=19 |issue=1 & 2 |pages=97–98 |issn=1655-1516 |access-date=February 11, 2023 |author-link1=Amado Castro |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211184927/https://econ.upd.edu.ph/pre/index.php/pre/article/download/361/274 |archive-date=February 11, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Romero |first1=Ma. Corona S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ngonYm_SDSIC |title=Rizal & the Development of National Consciousness |last2=Sta. Romana |first2=Julita R. |last3=Santos |first3=Lourdes Y. |date=2006 |edition=Second |publisher=Katha Publishing Co. |location=Quezon City, Philippines |isbn=978-971-574-103-3 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ngonYm_SDSIC&pg=PA25 25] |language=en |access-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-date=February 17, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230217144209/https://books.google.com/books?id=ngonYm_SDSIC |url-status=live }}</ref> Social identity changed, with the term ''Filipino'' encompassing all residents of the archipelago instead of solely referring to [[Spanish Filipino|Spaniards born in the Philippines]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hedman |first1=Eva-Lotta |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X_lDpY3vj60C |title=Philippine Politics and Society in the Twentieth Century: Colonial Legacies, Post-Colonial Trajectories |series=Politics in Asia |last2=Sidel |first2=John |editor-last1=Leifer |editor-first1=Michael |date=2005 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London, England |isbn=978-1-134-75421-2 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=X_lDpY3vj60C&pg=PA71 71] |author-link2=John Sidel}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Steinberg |first=David Joel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6NFMDwAAQBAJ |title=The Philippines: A Singular and a Plural Place |date=2018 |series=Nations of the Modern World: Asia |publisher=[[Westview Press]] |location=Boulder, Colo. |isbn=978-0-8133-3755-5 |edition=Fourth |at=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6NFMDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT74 The New Filipinos] |chapter=Chapter 3: A Singular and a Plural Folk |doi=10.4324/9780429494383 |access-date=September 30, 2020 |archive-date=February 18, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230218075805/https://books.google.com/books?id=6NFMDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> Revolutionary sentiment grew in 1872 after [[Gomburza|three activist Catholic priests]] were executed on questionable grounds.<ref>{{cite book |last=Schumacher |first=John N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6GU_Tzxu5qoC |title=The Propaganda Movement, 1880–1895: The Creation of a Filipino Consciousness, the Making of the Revolution |date=1997 |edition=Revised |publisher=[[Ateneo de Manila University Press]] |location=Manila, Philippines |isbn=978-971-550-209-2 |pages=8–9 |author-link1=John N. Schumacher |access-date=January 15, 2021 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073519/https://books.google.com/books?id=6GU_Tzxu5qoC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Schumacher |first=John N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aaLh8W6_84cC |title=Revolutionary Clergy: The Filipino Clergy and the Nationalist Movement, 1850–1903 |date=1998 |publisher=[[Ateneo de Manila University Press]] |location=Quezon City, Philippines |isbn=978-971-550-121-7 |pages=23–30 |author-link1=John N. Schumacher |access-date=January 15, 2021 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073446/https://books.google.com/books?id=aaLh8W6_84cC |url-status=live }}</ref> This inspired the [[Propaganda Movement]], organized by [[Marcelo H. del Pilar]], [[José Rizal]], [[Graciano López Jaena]], and [[Mariano Ponce]], which advocated political reform in the Philippines.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Acibo |first1=Libert Amorganda |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r8PCT9AB_REC |title=Jose P. Rizal: His Life, Works, and Role in the Philippine Revolution |last2=Galicano-Adanza |first2=Estela |date=1995 |publisher=[[REX Book Store, Inc.]] |location=Manila, Philippines |isbn=978-971-23-1837-5 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=r8PCT9AB_REC&pg=PA46 46–47] |language=en |access-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-date=February 17, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230217144211/https://books.google.com/books?id=r8PCT9AB_REC |url-status=live }}</ref> Rizal was executed on December 30, 1896, for rebellion, and his death radicalized many who had been loyal to Spain.<ref>{{cite book|editor-last1=Owen |editor-first1=Norman G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hVGMjBzBz9cC |title=The Emergence of Modern Southeast Asia: A New History |date=January 1, 2005 |publisher=[[University of Hawaiʻi Press]] |location=Honolulu, Hawaii |isbn=978-0-8248-2841-7 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hVGMjBzBz9cC&pg=PA156 156] |language=en}}</ref> Attempts at reform met with resistance; [[Andrés Bonifacio]] founded the [[Katipunan]] secret society, which sought independence from Spain through armed revolt, in 1892.<ref name="Halili-2004" />{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gUt5v8ET4QYC&pg=PA137|name=137}}}} The Katipunan [[Cry of Pugad Lawin]] began the [[Philippine Revolution]] in 1896.<ref>{{cite book |last=Borromeo-Buehler |first=Soledad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RJnMSmXLvr4C |title=The Cry of Balintawak: A Contrived Controversy: A Textual Analysis with Appended Documents |date=1998 |publisher=[[Ateneo de Manila University Press]] |location=Quezon City, Philippines |isbn=978-971-550-278-8 |page=7 |access-date=January 16, 2021 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073342/https://books.google.com/books?id=RJnMSmXLvr4C |url-status=live }}</ref> Internal disputes led to the [[Tejeros Convention]], at which Bonifacio lost his position and [[Emilio Aguinaldo]] was elected the new leader of the revolution.<ref name="Duka-2008">{{cite book |last=Duka |first=Cecilio D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4wk8yqCEmJUC |title=Struggle for Freedom: A Textbook on Philippine History |date=2008 |publisher=[[REX Book Store, Inc.]] |location=Manila, Philippines |isbn=978-971-23-5045-0 |access-date=January 16, 2021 |archive-date=September 23, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230923144103/https://books.google.com/books?id=4wk8yqCEmJUC |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4wk8yqCEmJUC&pg=PA147|name=145–147}}}} The 1897 [[Pact of Biak-na-Bato]] resulted in the [[Hong Kong Junta]] government in exile. The [[Spanish–American War]] began the following year, and reached the Philippines; Aguinaldo returned, resumed the revolution, and [[Philippine Declaration of Independence|declared independence]] from Spain on June 12, 1898.<ref name="Abinales-2022">{{cite book |last=Abinales |first=Patricio N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0Hd3EAAAQBAJ |title=Modern Philippines |series=Understanding Modern Nations |date=July 8, 2022 |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |location=Santa Barbara, Calif. |isbn=978-1-4408-6005-8 |language=en |access-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-date=February 17, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230217144210/https://books.google.com/books?id=0Hd3EAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0Hd3EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA26|name=26}}}} In December 1898, the islands were [[Treaty of Paris (1898)|ceded by Spain]] to the United States with [[Puerto Rico]] and [[Guam]] after the Spanish–American War.<ref>{{cite book |last=Draper |first=Andrew Sloan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MD8OAAAAIAAJ |title=The Rescue of Cuba: An Episode in the Growth of Free Government |date=1899 |publisher=[[Silver Burdett]] |location=New York |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=MD8OAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA170 170–172] |isbn=<!-- ISBN unspecified --> |oclc=9764656 |author-link1=Andrew S. Draper |access-date=February 10, 2021 |archive-date=February 11, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211172545/https://books.google.com/books?id=MD8OAAAAIAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Fantina |first=Robert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AD0B560nGVIC |title=Desertion and the American Soldier, 1776–2006 |date=2006 |publisher=Algora Publishing |location=New York |isbn=978-0-87586-454-9 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AD0B560nGVIC&pg=PA83 83]}}</ref> The [[First Philippine Republic]] was promulgated on January 21, 1899.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Starr |editor-first1=J. Barton |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NTPxAQAAQBAJ |title=The United States Constitution: Its Birth, Growth, and Influence in Asia |date=September 1988 |publisher=[[Hong Kong University Press]] |location=Hong Kong, China |isbn=978-962-209-201-3 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NTPxAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA260 260] |access-date=January 19, 2021 |archive-date=February 11, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211124609/https://books.google.com/books?id=NTPxAQAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> Lack of recognition by the United States led to an [[Battle of Manila (1899)|outbreak of hostilities]] that, after refusal by the U.S. on-scene military commander of a cease-fire proposal and a declaration of war by the nascent Republic,{{efn|This is a summary, omitting significant detail. For more detail, see {{section link|Schurman Commission|Survey visit to the Philippines}}.}} escalated into the [[Philippine–American War]].<ref name=Nation18990504>{{cite magazine|title=The week|magazine=The Nation|volume=68|issue=1766|page=323|date=May 4, 1899|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8QUDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA323}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Linn |first=Brian McAllister |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PSJGPgAACAAJ |title=The Philippine War, 1899–1902 |publisher=[[University Press of Kansas]] |year=2000 |location=Lawrence, Kans. |isbn=978-0-7006-1225-3 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PSJGPgAACAAJ&pg=PA75 75–76] |author-link=Brian McAllister Linn |access-date=December 25, 2018 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073827/https://books.google.com/books?id=PSJGPgAACAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Kalaw|first=Maximo Manguiat|title=The Development of Philippine politics (1872–1920)|publisher=Oriental Commercial Company, Inc.|location=Manila|year=1927|url=http://quod.lib.umich.edu/p/philamer/afj2233.0001.001?rgn=main;view=fulltext|pages=199–200|access-date=December 3, 2023|archive-date=December 14, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191214233312/https://quod.lib.umich.edu/p/philamer/AFJ2233.0001.001?rgn=main;view=fulltext|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite web||last=Paterno|first=Pedro Alejandro|author-link=Pedro Paterno|title=Pedro Paterno's Proclamation of War|work=The Philippine-American War Documents|publisher=MSC Institute of Technology, Inc.|location=San Pablo City, Philippines|date=June 2, 1899|url=http://www.msc.edu.ph/centennial/pa990602.html|access-date=December 25, 2016}}</ref> [[File:Gregorio del Pilar and his troops, around 1898.jpg|thumb|Filipino General [[Gregorio del Pilar]] and his troops in Pampanga around 1898, during the [[Philippine-American War]]]] The war resulted in the deaths of 250,000 to 1 million civilians, primarily due to famine and disease.<ref name="Tucker-2009">{{Cite encyclopedia |editor-last1=Tucker |editor-first1=Spencer |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8V3vZxOmHssC |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of the Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars: A Political, Social, and Military History |title=Philippine-American War |date=May 20, 2009 |edition=Illustrated |volume=I: A–L |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |location=Santa Barbara, Calif. |isbn=978-1-85109-951-1 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8V3vZxOmHssC&pg=PA478 478] |language=en |editor-link1=Spencer C. Tucker |access-date=July 25, 2021 |archive-date=September 23, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230923151624/https://books.google.com/books?id=8V3vZxOmHssC |url-status=live }}</ref> Many Filipinos were transported by the Americans to [[List of concentration and internment camps#Philippines|concentration camps]], where thousands died.<ref>{{cite book |last=Briley |first=Ron |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7TbvDwAAQBAJ |title=Talking American History: An Informal Narrative History of the United States |publisher=Sunstone Press |year=2020 |location=Santa Fe, N.M. |isbn=978-1-63293-288-4 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7TbvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA247 247] |access-date=December 27, 2022 |archive-date=February 11, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211172542/https://books.google.com/books?id=7TbvDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last1=Cocks |first1=Catherine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pvxD_LjXVRMC |encyclopedia=Historical Dictionary of the Progressive Era |series=Historical Dictionaries of U.S. Historical Eras |volume=12 |title=Philippine-American War (1899–1902) |last2=Holloran |first2=Peter C. |last3=Lessoff |first3=Alan |date=March 13, 2009 |publisher=[[The Scarecrow Press]] |location=Lanham, Md. |isbn=978-0-8108-6293-7 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pvxD_LjXVRMC&pg=PA332 332] |access-date=December 27, 2022 |archive-date=February 11, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211172543/https://books.google.com/books?id=pvxD_LjXVRMC |url-status=live }}</ref> After the fall of the First Philippine Republic in 1902, an [[Insular Government of the Philippine Islands|American civilian government]] was established with the [[Philippine Organic Act (1902)|Philippine Organic Act]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Gates |first=John M. |title=The U.S. Army and Irregular Warfare |date=November 2002 |chapter=Chapter 3: The Pacification of the Philippines |access-date=February 20, 2010 |chapter-url=http://www3.wooster.edu/history/jgates/book-ch3.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100805061319/http://www3.wooster.edu/history/jgates/book-ch3.html |archive-date=August 5, 2010 |via=[[College of Wooster]] |oclc=49327571}}</ref> American forces continued to secure and extend their control of the islands, suppressing an attempted [[Tagalog Republic#Sakay|extension of the Philippine Republic]],<ref name="Duka-2008" />{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4wk8yqCEmJUC&pg=PA200|name=200–202}}}}<ref name="Tucker-2009" /> [[Kiram–Bates Treaty|securing the Sultanate of Sulu]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Abanes |first=Menandro Sarion |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ir8vBQAAQBAJ |title=Ethno-religious Identification and Intergroup Contact Avoidance: An Empirical Study on Christian-Muslim Relations in the Philippines |series=Nijmegen Studies in Development and Cultural Change |date=2014 |publisher=[[LIT Verlag|LIT Verlag Münster]] |location=Zürich, Switzerland |isbn=978-3-643-90580-2 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ir8vBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA36 36] |language=en |access-date=February 11, 2023 |archive-date=February 17, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230217144209/https://books.google.com/books?id=ir8vBQAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Federspiel |first=Howard M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5Qf39DpguysC |title=Sultans, Shamans, and Saints: Islam and Muslims in Southeast Asia |date=January 31, 2007 |publisher=[[University of Hawaiʻi Press]] |location=Honolulu, Hawaii |isbn=978-0-8248-3052-6 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5Qf39DpguysC&pg=PA120 120] |language=en |access-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073948/https://books.google.com/books?id=5Qf39DpguysC |url-status=live }}</ref> establishing control of interior mountainous areas which had resisted Spanish conquest,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Aguilar-Cariño |first1=Ma. Luisa |year=1994 |title=The Igorot as Other: Four Discourses from the Colonial Period |journal=[[Philippine Studies (journal)|Philippine Studies]] |publisher=[[Ateneo de Manila University]] |volume=42 |issue=2 |issn=0031-7837 |pages=194–209 |jstor=42633435}}</ref> and encouraging large-scale resettlement of Christians in once-predominantly-Muslim Mindanao.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Wolff |editor-first1=Stefan |editor-last2=Özkanca |editor-first2=Oya Dursun- |title=External Interventions in Civil Wars: The Role and Impact of Regional and International Organisations |date=March 16, 2016 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London, England |isbn=978-1-134-91142-4 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=WNu_CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA103 103] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WNu_CwAAQBAJ |language=en |editor-link1=Stefan Wolff |access-date=March 23, 2023 |archive-date=March 23, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323163243/https://books.google.com/books?id=WNu_CwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor-last1=Rogers |editor-first1=Mark M. |editor-last2=Bamat |editor-first2=Tom |editor-last3=Ideh |editor-first3=Julie |title=Pursuing Just Peace: An Overview and Case Studies for Faith-Based Peacebuilders |date=March 24, 2008 |publisher=[[Catholic Relief Services]] |location=Baltimore, Md. |isbn=978-1-61492-030-4 |page=119 |url=https://www.crs.org/publications/showpdf.cfm?pdf_id=56 |access-date=April 25, 2023 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090208080127/https://www.crs.org/publications/showpdf.cfm?pdf_id=56 |archive-date=February 8, 2009}}</ref> [[File:Manuel Quezon First Inauguration.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|The Inauguration of Manuel L. Quezon as President of the Commonwealth of the Philippines on Nov 15, 1935]] Cultural developments strengthened a national identity,<ref name="Armes-1987">{{cite book |last=Armes |first=Roy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qFDnqIwdr8EC |title=Third World Film Making and the West |date=July 29, 1987 |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |location=Berkeley, Calif. |isbn=978-0-520-90801-7 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qFDnqIwdr8EC&pg=PA152 152] |language=en |access-date=October 18, 2015 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073829/https://books.google.com/books?id=qFDnqIwdr8EC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Tofighian-2006">{{Cite thesis |last=Tofighian |first=Nadi |date=2006 |title=The role of Jose Nepomuceno in the Philippine society: What language did his silent films speak? |url=http://su.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:200615/FULLTEXT01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120309052902/http://su.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:200615/FULLTEXT01 |archive-date=March 9, 2012 |access-date=February 9, 2023 |website=[[DiVA (open archive)|DiVA portal]] |publisher=[[Stockholm University]] |oclc=1235074310}}</ref>{{rp|page=12}} and [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] began to take precedence over other local languages.<ref name="Abinales-2005" />{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xiOQdEzgP9kC&pg=PA121|name=121}}}} Governmental functions were gradually given to Filipinos by the [[Taft Commission]];<ref name="Ooi-2004" />{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC&pg=PA1081|name=1081}}, {{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC&pg=PA1117|name=1117}}}} the 1934 [[Tydings–McDuffie Act]] granted a ten-year transition to independence through the creation of the [[Commonwealth of the Philippines]] the following year,<ref name="Nadeau-2020">{{cite book |last1=Nadeau |first1=Kathleen |title=The History of the Philippines |series=The Greenwood Histories of the Modern Nations |date=April 3, 2020 |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group|Greenwood]] |location=Santa Barbara, Calif. |isbn=978-1-4408-7359-1 |page=76 |edition=Second |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_ErEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA76 |access-date=October 12, 2023 |language=en |archive-date=October 19, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231019084900/https://books.google.com/books?id=_ErEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA76 |url-status=live }}</ref> with [[Manuel L. Quezon|Manuel Quezon]] president and [[Sergio Osmeña]] vice president.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Lai To |editor-first1=Lee |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WCwlDwAAQBAJ |title=Regional Community Building in East Asia: Countries in Focus |series=Politics in Asia |editor-last2=Othman |editor-first2=Zarina |date=September 1, 2016 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=New York, N.Y. |isbn=978-1-317-26556-6 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=WCwlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA145 145] |access-date=January 29, 2021 |archive-date=February 11, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211172544/https://books.google.com/books?id=WCwlDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> Quezon's priorities were defence, social justice, inequality, economic diversification, and national character.<ref name="Ooi-2004" />{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC&pg=PA1081|name=1081}}, {{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC&pg=PA1117|name=1117}}}} [[Filipino language|Filipino]] (a standardized variety of Tagalog) became the national language,<ref name="Thompson-2003">{{cite book |last=Thompson |first=Roger M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1VI9AAAAQBAJ |title=Filipino English and Taglish: Language Switching From Multiple Perspectives |series=Varieties of English Around the World |date=October 16, 2003 |publisher=[[John Benjamins Publishing Company]] |location=Amsterdam, Netherlands |isbn=978-90-272-9607-8 |access-date=September 28, 2020 |archive-date=November 18, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201118092514/https://books.google.com/books?id=1VI9AAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W1h9oF9rj-MC&pg=PA27|name=27–29}}}} [[1937 Philippine women's suffrage plebiscite|women's suffrage was introduced]],<ref>{{#invoke:cite news||last=Gonzales |first=Cathrine |date=April 30, 2020 |title=Celebrating 83 years of women's suffrage in the Philippines |newspaper=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]] |url=https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/1267381/celebrating-83-years-of-womens-suffrage-in-the-philippines |access-date=January 29, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200506193300/https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/1267381/celebrating-83-years-of-womens-suffrage-in-the-philippines |archive-date=May 6, 2020}}</ref><ref name="Guillermo-2012" />{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wmgX9M_yETIC&pg=PA416|name=416}}}} and [[Land reform in the Philippines|land reform]] was considered.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kwiatkowski |first=Lynn |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I__EDwAAQBAJ |title=Struggling With Development: The Politics of Hunger and Gender in the Philippines |date=May 20, 2019 |publisher=[[Westview Press]] |location=Boulder, Colo. |isbn=978-0-429-96562-3 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=I__EDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA41 41] |access-date=January 29, 2021 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073947/https://books.google.com/books?id=I__EDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Holden |first1=William N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kcA1DgAAQBAJ |title=Mining and Natural Hazard Vulnerability in the Philippines: Digging to Development or Digging to Disaster? |series=Anthem Environmental Studies |last2=Jacobson |first2=R. Daniel |date=February 15, 2012 |publisher=Anthem Press |location=London, England |isbn=978-1-84331-396-0 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kcA1DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA229 229] |language=en |access-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-date=February 17, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230217144208/https://books.google.com/books?id=kcA1DgAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Riedinger |first=Jeffrey M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FlasRfravpEC |title=Agrarian Reform in the Philippines: Democratic Transitions and Redistributive Reform |date=1995 |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |location=Stanford, Calif. |isbn=978-0-8047-2530-9 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FlasRfravpEC&pg=PA87 87] |language=en |access-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-date=April 22, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230422235850/https://books.google.com/books?id=FlasRfravpEC |url-status=live }}</ref>[[File:Douglas MacArthur lands Leyte1.jpg|thumb|alt=Douglas MacArthur, Sergio Osmeña, and Osmeña's staff wading ashore in knee-deep water|[[General Douglas MacArthur]] and [[Sergio Osmeña]] ''(left)'' coming ashore during the [[Battle of Leyte]] on October 20, 1944|left]]The [[Empire of Japan]] invaded the Philippines in December 1941 [[Military history of the Philippines during World War II|during World War II]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Chamberlain |first=Sharon W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JByIDwAAQBAJ |title=A Reckoning: Philippine Trials of Japanese War Criminals |series=New Perspectives in Southeast Asian Studies |date=March 5, 2019 |publisher=[[University of Wisconsin Press]] |location=Madison, Wis. |isbn=978-0-299-31860-4 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=JByIDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA11 11] |access-date=February 16, 2021 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073830/https://books.google.com/books?id=JByIDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> and the [[Second Philippine Republic]] was established as a [[puppet state]] governed by [[Jose P. Laurel]].<ref>{{cite report|last1=Rankin |first1=Karl L. |author-link=Karl L. Rankin |date=November 25, 1943 |title=Document 984 |series=Foreign Relations of the United States: Diplomatic Papers, 1943, The British Commonwealth, Eastern Europe, the Far East |volume=III |chapter=Introduction |url=https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1943v03/d984 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629000417/https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1943v03/d984 |archive-date=June 29, 2017 |access-date=February 16, 2021 |publisher=[[Office of the Historian]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Abinales |first1=Patricio N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TwglDwAAQBAJ |title=State and Society in the Philippines |last2=Amoroso |first2=Donna J. |date=July 6, 2017 |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |location=Lanham, Md. |isbn=978-1-5381-0395-1 |edition=Second |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=TwglDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA160 160] |access-date=February 16, 2021 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073954/https://books.google.com/books?id=TwglDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> Beginning in 1942, the [[Japanese occupation of the Philippines]] was [[Philippine resistance against Japan|opposed]] by large-scale [[Japanese occupation of the Philippines#Resistance|underground guerrilla activity]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite web||title=The Guerrilla War |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/macarthur/sfeature/bataan_guerrilla.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170128153210/https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/macarthur/sfeature/bataan_guerrilla.html |archive-date=January 28, 2017 |access-date=February 24, 2011 |website=[[American Experience]] |publisher=[[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Minor |first=Colin |date=March 4, 2019 |title=Filipino Guerilla Resistance to Japanese Invasion in World War II |url=https://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1044&context=legacy |journal=Legacy |volume=15 |issue=1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200320025106/https://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1044&context=legacy |archive-date=March 20, 2020 |access-date=February 11, 2023 |via=[[Southern Illinois University Carbondale]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |editor-last1=Sandler |editor-first1=Stanley |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K-027Yrx12UC |encyclopedia=World War II in the Pacific: An Encyclopedia |title=Philippines, Anti-Japanese Guerrillas in |date=2001 |publisher=[[Garland Publishing]] |location=New York, N.Y. |isbn=978-0-8153-1883-5 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=K-027Yrx12UC&pg=PA819 819–825] |access-date=February 18, 2021 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073835/https://books.google.com/books?id=K-027Yrx12UC |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Japanese war crimes|Atrocities and war crimes]] were committed during the war, including the [[Bataan Death March]] and the [[Manila massacre]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Jones |first=Jeffrey Frank |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/Japan/Japanese-War-Crimes-Guide.pdf |title=Japanese War Crimes and Related Topics: A Guide to Records at the National Archives |publisher=[[National Archives and Records Administration]] |location=Washington, D.C. |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Gx9JDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1031 1031–1037] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100414092157/http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/Japan/Japanese-War-Crimes-Guide.pdf |archive-date=April 14, 2010 |via=[[ibiblio]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor-last1=Li |editor-first1=Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2J0ZqRZw-QQC |title=Japanese War Crimes: The Search for Justice |publisher=[[Transaction Publishers]] |location=New Brunswick, N.J. |isbn=978-1-4128-2683-9 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2J0ZqRZw-QQC&pg=PA250 250] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201002122006/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Japanese_War_Crimes/2J0ZqRZw-QQC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=%22japanese+atrocities&pg=PA250 |archive-date=October 2, 2020}}</ref> Allied troops [[Philippines campaign (1944–1945)|defeated the Japanese]] in 1945, and over one million Filipinos were estimated to have died by the end of the war.<ref>{{cite book |last=Rottman |first=Gordon L. |title=World War II Pacific Island Guide: A Geo-Military Study |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ChyilRml0hcC |publisher=[[Greenwood Press]] |location=Westport, Conn. |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-313-31395-0 |author-link=Gordon L. Rottman |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ChyilRml0hcC&pg=PA318 318] |access-date=October 18, 2015 |archive-date=October 12, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231012205757/https://books.google.com/books?id=ChyilRml0hcC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Del Gallego |first=John A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=983xDwAAQBAJ |title=The Liberation of Manila: 28 Days of Carnage, February–March 1945 |date=July 17, 2020 |publisher=[[McFarland & Company|McFarland]] |location=Jefferson, N.C. |isbn=978-1-4766-3597-2 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=983xDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA84 84] |language=en |access-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-date=February 17, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230217144212/https://books.google.com/books?id=983xDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> On October 11, 1945, the Philippines became a [[member states of the United Nations|founding member]] of the [[United Nations]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite web||title=Founding Member States |url=https://www.un.org/depts/dhl/unms/founders.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091121135646/https://www.un.org/depts/dhl/unms/founders.shtml |archive-date=November 21, 2009 |publisher=[[United Nations]]}}</ref><ref name="Buhler-2001">{{cite book |last=Bühler |first=Konrad G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ty7NAG1Jl-8C |title=State Succession and Membership in International Organizations: Legal Theories versus Political Pragmatism |series=Legal Aspects of International Organization |date=February 8, 2001 |publisher=[[Kluwer Law International]] |location=The Hague, Netherlands |isbn=978-90-411-1553-9 |access-date=August 22, 2020 |archive-date=April 5, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405131023/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ty7NAG1Jl-8C |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ty7NAG1Jl-8C&pg=PA38|name=38–41}}}} On July 4, 1946, during the presidency of [[Manuel Roxas]], the country's independence was recognized by the United States with the [[Treaty of Manila (1946)|Treaty of Manila]].<ref name="Buhler-2001" />{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ty7NAG1Jl-8C&pg=PA38|name=38–41}}}}<ref>{{cite book|title=Treaties and Other International Agreements of the United States of America; 1776–1949 |url=https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/ll/lltreaties//lltreaties-ustbv011/lltreaties-ustbv011.pdf |publisher=[[United States Department of State]] |location=United States |volume=II |year= 1974 |pages=3–6 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210824161243/https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/ll/lltreaties//lltreaties-ustbv011/lltreaties-ustbv011.pdf |archive-date=August 24, 2021}}</ref> === Independence (1946–present) === {{Main|History of the Philippines (1946–1965)|History of the Philippines (1965–1986)|History of the Philippines (1986–present)}}[[File:Philippine Independence, July 4 1946.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|The raising of the [[Flag of the Philippines]] during the declaration of Philippine Independence on July 4, 1946]] Efforts at post-war reconstruction and ending the [[Hukbalahap Rebellion]] succeeded during [[Ramon Magsaysay]]'s presidency,<ref>{{cite book|last=Goodwin |first=Jeff |url=https://archive.org/details/nootherwayout00jeff |title=No Other Way Out: States and Revolutionary Movements, 1945–1991 |series=Cambridge Studies in Comparative Politics |date=2001 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=Cambridge, England |isbn=978-0-521-62069-7 |page=[https://archive.org/details/nootherwayout00jeff/page/118 118] |author1-link=Jeff Goodwin}}</ref> but sporadic communist insurgency continued to flare up long afterward.<ref name="Tucker-2013">{{Cite encyclopedia |editor-last1=Tucker |editor-first=Spencer C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LXCjAQAAQBAJ |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Insurgency and Counterinsurgency: A New Era of Modern Warfare |title=Hukbalahap Rebellion |date=October 29, 2013 |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |location=Santa Barbara, Calif. |isbn=978-1-61069-280-9 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=LXCjAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA244 244] |language=en |editor-link1=Spencer C. Tucker}}</ref> Under Magsaysay's successor, [[Carlos P. Garcia]], the government initiated a [[Filipino First policy]] which promoted Filipino-owned businesses.<ref name="Abinales-2005" />{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xiOQdEzgP9kC&pg=PA182|name=182}}}} Succeeding Garcia, [[Diosdado Macapagal]] moved Independence Day from July 4 to June 12—the date of Emilio Aguinaldo's declaration—<ref>{{#invoke:cite web||title=Republic Day |url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/featured/republic-day/about/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180225103921/https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/featured/republic-day/about/ |archive-date=February 25, 2018 |access-date=February 12, 2023 |website=[[Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines]] |at=II. Independence Day moved from July 4 to June 12}}</ref> and pursued [[North Borneo dispute|a claim]] on eastern [[North Borneo]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Dobbs |first=Charles M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wkMaBwAAQBAJ |title=Trade and Security: The United States and East Asia, 1961–1969 |date=February 19, 2010 |publisher=[[Cambridge Scholars Publishing]] |location=Newcastle upon Tyne, England |isbn=978-1-4438-1995-4 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=wkMaBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA222 222] |language=en |access-date=February 18, 2023 |archive-date=March 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306103527/https://books.google.com/books?id=wkMaBwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Weatherbee |first1=Donald E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4wqEC4jHl9wC |title=International Relations in Southeast Asia: The Struggle for Autonomy |last2=Emmers |first2=Ralf |last3=Pangestu |first3=Mari |last4=Sebastian |first4=Leonard C. |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |location=Lanham, Md. |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7425-2842-0 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4wqEC4jHl9wC&pg=PA68 68–69] |access-date=October 18, 2015 |archive-date=June 4, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200604143037/https://books.google.com/books?id=4wqEC4jHl9wC |url-status=live }}</ref> [[File:Marcos Declares Martial Law.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Martial law under Ferdinand Marcos|The Declaration of Martial Law]] in the headlines of the Sunday Express]] In 1965, Macapagal [[1965 Philippine presidential election|lost]] the presidential election to [[Ferdinand Marcos]]. [[First term of the presidency of Ferdinand Marcos|Early in his presidency]], Marcos began infrastructure projects funded mostly by foreign loans; this improved the economy, and contributed to his [[1969 Philippine presidential election|reelection in 1969]].<ref name="Timberman-1991">{{cite book |last=Timberman |first=David G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NkBO2RhI4NUC |title=A Changeless Land: Continuity and Change in Philippine Politics |publisher=[[M.E. Sharpe]] |location=Armonk, N.Y. |year=1991 |isbn=978-981-3035-86-7 |access-date=September 28, 2020 |archive-date=February 18, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230218094758/https://books.google.com/books?id=NkBO2RhI4NUC |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NkBO2RhI4NUC&pg=PA58|name=58}}}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Fernandes |first=Clinton |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6mrU4FBGqCAC |title=Hot Spot: Asia and Oceania |date=June 30, 2008 |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |location=Westport, Conn. |isbn=978-0-313-35413-7 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6mrU4FBGqCAC&pg=PA188 188] |language=en |author-link1=Clinton Fernandes |access-date=February 18, 2023 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073832/https://books.google.com/books?id=6mrU4FBGqCAC |url-status=live }}</ref> Near the end of his last constitutionally-permitted term, Marcos [[Proclamation No. 1081|declared martial law]] on September 21, 1972<ref>{{#invoke:cite web||title=Declaration of Martial Law |url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/featured/declaration-of-martial-law/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170708065018/http://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/featured/declaration-of-martial-law/ |archive-date=July 8, 2017 |access-date=September 1, 2020 |website=[[Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines]]}}</ref> using the specter of communism<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Hastedt |first=Glenn P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9HpR1b5zZxwC |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of American Foreign Policy |title=Philippines |date=January 1, 2004 |publisher=[[Facts On File]] |location=New York, N.Y. |isbn=978-1-4381-0989-3 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9HpR1b5zZxwC&pg=392 392] |language=en |access-date=March 17, 2023 |archive-date=May 10, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230510063237/https://books.google.com/books?id=9HpR1b5zZxwC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |editor-last1=Martin |editor-first1=Gus |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ClN2AwAAQBAJ |encyclopedia=The SAGE Encyclopedia of Terrorism |edition=Second |title=New People's Army |date=June 15, 2011 |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] |location=Thousand Oaks, Calif. |isbn=978-1-4522-6638-1 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ClN2AwAAQBAJ&pg=427 427] |language=en |author-link1=C. Augustus Martin |access-date=March 17, 2023 |archive-date=April 20, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230420100924/https://books.google.com/books?id=ClN2AwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=van der Kroef |first1=Justus M. |title=Asian Communism in the Crucible |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6XBafuPyHq8C |journal=Problems of Communism |date=1975 |publisher=Documentary Studies Section, [[International Information Administration]] |issue=March–April 1975 |volume=XXIV |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6XBafuPyHq8C&pg=PA59 59] |access-date=September 28, 2020 |archive-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230212090208/https://books.google.com/books?id=6XBafuPyHq8C |url-status=live }}</ref> and began to [[rule by decree]];<ref name="TheEuropaWorldYear-2004">{{cite book |title=The Europa World Year: Kazakhstan – Zimbabwe |date=2004 |publisher=[[Europa Publications]] |location=London, England |edition=45th |volume=II |isbn=978-1-85743-255-8 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=gP_-8rXzQs8C&pg=PA3408 3408] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gP_-8rXzQs8C |language=en |access-date=March 22, 2023 |archive-date=January 14, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114164345/https://books.google.com/books?id=gP_-8rXzQs8C |url-status=live }}</ref> the period was characterized by [[Political detainees under the Marcos dictatorship|political repression]], [[Journalism during the Marcos dictatorship|censorship]], and [[Human rights abuses of the Marcos dictatorship|human rights violations]].<ref>{{cite report|last1=Leary |first1=Virginia A. |url=https://www.icj.org/wp-content/uploads/1984/01/Philippines-human-rights-mission-report-1984-eng.pdf |title=The Philippines: Human Rights After Martial Law: Report of a Mission |last2=Ellis |first2=A. A. |last3=Madlener |first3=Kurt |date=1984 |publisher=[[International Commission of Jurists]] |isbn=978-92-9037-023-9 |location=Geneva, Switzerland |chapter=Chapter 1: An Overview of Human Rights |access-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140329103100/https://www.icj.org/wp-content/uploads/1984/01/Philippines-human-rights-mission-report-1984-eng.pdf |archive-date=March 29, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=van Erven |first=Eugène |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mWe8mLteIigC |title=The Playful Revolution: Theatre and Liberation in Asia |date=1992 |publisher=[[Indiana University Press]] |location=Bloomington, Ind. |isbn=978-0-253-20729-6 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mWe8mLteIigC&pg=PA35 35] |language=en |access-date=February 18, 2023 |archive-date=March 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306103527/https://books.google.com/books?id=mWe8mLteIigC |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Monopolies in the Philippines (1965–1986)|Monopolies]] controlled by [[Cronies of Ferdinand Marcos|Marcos' cronies]] were established in key industries,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kang |first1=David C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=im465FAopWMC |title=Crony Capitalism: Corruption and Development in South Korea and the Philippines |date=January 24, 2002 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=Cambridge, England |isbn=978-0-521-00408-4 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=im465FAopWMC&pg=PA140 140] |language=en |author-link1=David C. Kang |access-date=February 18, 2023 |archive-date=March 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306103527/https://books.google.com/books?id=im465FAopWMC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=White |first=Lynn T. III |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4mvfBQAAQBAJ |title=Philippine Politics: Possibilities and Problems in a Localist Democracy |series=Routledge Contemporary Southeast Asia Series |date=December 17, 2014 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London, England |isbn=978-1-317-57422-4 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4mvfBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA74 74] |language=en |access-date=February 18, 2023 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203074430/https://books.google.com/books?id=4mvfBQAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Salazar |first=Lorraine Carlos |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wA2P9HBcr2YC |title=Getting a Dial Tone: Telecommunications Liberalisation in Malaysia and the Philippines |date=2007 |publisher=[[ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute|Institute of Southeast Asian Studies]] |location=Singapore |isbn=978-981-230-382-0 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=wA2P9HBcr2YC&pg=PA12 12–13] |language=en |access-date=February 18, 2023 |archive-date=March 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306103527/https://books.google.com/books?id=wA2P9HBcr2YC |url-status=live }}</ref> including [[Deforestation in the Philippines#Deforestation during the martial law era|logging]]<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Inoue |editor-first1=M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nwTuCAAAQBAJ |title=People and Forest — Policy and Local Reality in Southeast Asia, the Russian Far East, and Japan |editor-last2=Isozaki |editor-first2=H. |date=November 11, 2013 |publisher=[[Springer Science & Business Media]] |location=Dordrecht, Netherlands |isbn=978-94-017-2554-5 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nwTuCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA142 142] |language=en |access-date=February 18, 2023 |archive-date=March 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306103527/https://books.google.com/books?id=nwTuCAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> and broadcasting;<ref name="Guillermo-2012" />{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wmgX9M_yETIC&pg=PA120|name=120}}}} a sugar monopoly led to [[Negros famine|a famine on the island of Negros]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite news||date=September 10, 1985 |title=UCAN Special Report: What's Behind the Negros Famine Crisis |language=en |work=[[Union of Catholic Asian News]] |url=https://www.ucanews.com/story-archive/?post_name=/1985/09/11/ucan-special-report-whats-behind-the-negros-famine-crisis&post_id=33345 |access-date=February 14, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160322040705/https://www.ucanews.com/story-archive/?post_name=/1985/09/11/ucan-special-report-whats-behind-the-negros-famine-crisis&post_id=33345 |archive-date=March 22, 2016}}</ref> With his wife, [[Imelda Marcos|Imelda]], Marcos was accused of corruption and [[Unexplained wealth of the Marcos family|embezzling billions of dollars]] of public funds.<ref>{{cite book |last=SarDesai |first=D. R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yjNWDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT206 |title=Southeast Asia: Past and Present |date=December 4, 2012 |edition=7th |publisher=[[Westview Press]] |isbn=978-0-8133-4838-4 |language=en |access-date=February 18, 2023 |archive-date=March 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306103527/https://books.google.com/books?id=yjNWDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT206 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Vogl |first=Frank |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hBCMTGiVBYMC |title=Waging War on Corruption: Inside the Movement Fighting the Abuse of Power |date=September 2016 |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |location=Boulder, Colo. |isbn=978-1-4422-1853-6 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hBCMTGiVBYMC&pg=PA60 60] |language=en |access-date=February 18, 2023 |archive-date=March 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306103527/https://books.google.com/books?id=hBCMTGiVBYMC |url-status=live }}</ref> Marcos' heavy borrowing [[1969 Philippine balance of payments crisis|early in his presidency]] resulted in [[Economic history of the Philippines (1965–1986)|economic crashes]], exacerbated by an [[early 1980s recession]] where the economy contracted by 7.3 percent annually in 1984 and 1985.<ref name="Thompson-Batalla-2018">{{cite book |editor-last1=Thompson |editor-first1=Mark R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DmkPEAAAQBAJ |title=Routledge Handbook of the Contemporary Philippines |series=Routledge Handbooks |editor-last2=Batalla |editor-first2=Eric Vincent C. |date=February 19, 2018 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London, England |isbn=978-1-317-48526-1 |language=en |author-link1=Mark R. Thompson |access-date=February 18, 2023 |archive-date=March 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306103526/https://books.google.com/books?id=DmkPEAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DmkPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA212|name=212}}}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Raquiza |first=Antoinette R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g5bkhjFAzyMC |title=State Structure, Policy Formation, and Economic Development in Southeast Asia: The Political Economy of Thailand and the Philippines |series=Routledge Studies in the Growth Economies of Asia |date=June 17, 2013 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London, England |isbn=978-1-136-50502-7 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=g5bkhjFAzyMC&pg=PA40 40–41] |language=en |access-date=February 18, 2023 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203074317/https://books.google.com/books?id=g5bkhjFAzyMC |url-status=live }}</ref> On August 21, 1983, opposition leader [[Ninoy Aquino|Benigno Aquino Jr.]] (Marcos' chief rival) was [[Assassination of Ninoy Aquino|assassinated on the tarmac]] at [[Ninoy Aquino International Airport|Manila International Airport]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite news||last=Quinn-Judge |first=Paul |date=September 7, 1983 |title=Assassination of Aquino linked to power struggle for successor to Marcos |work=[[The Christian Science Monitor]] |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/1983/0907/090742.html |access-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908131731/https://www.csmonitor.com/1983/0907/090742.html |archive-date=September 8, 2015}}</ref> Marcos called a snap [[1986 Philippine presidential election|presidential election in 1986]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Hermida |first=Ranilo Balaguer |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VASXBQAAQBAJ |title=Imagining Modern Democracy: A Habermasian Assessment of the Philippine Experiment |date=November 19, 2014 |publisher=[[State University of New York Press|SUNY Press]] |location=Albany, N.Y. |isbn=978-1-4384-5387-3 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VASXBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA12 12] |language=en |access-date=February 18, 2023 |archive-date=March 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306103526/https://books.google.com/books?id=VASXBQAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> which proclaimed him the winner, but the results were widely regarded as fraudulent.<ref>{{cite report|url=http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNABK494.pdf |title=A Path to Democratic Renewal |last1=Atwood |first1=J. Brian |last2=Schuette |first2=Keith E. |page=350 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140512220659/http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNABK494.pdf |archive-date=May 12, 2014 |via=[[National Democratic Institute for International Affairs]] and [[International Republican Institute]] |author-link1=J. Brian Atwood}}</ref> The resulting protests led to the [[People Power Revolution]],<ref name="LATimes-3DayRevolution">{{#invoke:cite news||last=Fineman |first=Mark |date=February 27, 1986 |title=The 3-Day Revolution: How Marcos Was Toppled |work=[[Los Angeles Times]] |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1986-02-27-mn-12085-story.html |access-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200825042718/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1986-02-27-mn-12085-story.html |archive-date=August 25, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news||last=Burgess |first=John |date=April 21, 1986 |title=Not All Filipinos Glad Marcos Is Out |newspaper=[[Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1986/04/21/not-all-filipinos-glad-marcos-is-out/d90b949f-da34-410a-be2e-95056958bcb2/ |access-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230212085658/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1986/04/21/not-all-filipinos-glad-marcos-is-out/d90b949f-da34-410a-be2e-95056958bcb2/ |archive-date=February 12, 2023}}</ref> which forced Marcos and his allies to flee to [[Hawaii]]. Aquino's widow, [[Corazon Aquino|Corazon]], was installed as president.<ref name="LATimes-3DayRevolution" /> [[File:Pinatubo91eruption plume.jpg|thumb|alt=A huge ash cloud, seen from a distance|The June [[1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo]] was the [[List of volcanic eruptions 1500–1999|second-largest terrestrial eruption]] of the 20th century.<ref name=usgs>{{#invoke:cite web||last1=Newhall |first1=Chris |last2=Hendley |first2=James W. II |last3=Stauffer |first3=Peter H. |name-list-style=amp |date=February 28, 2005 |title=The Cataclysmic 1991 Eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Philippines (U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 113-97) |series=Reducing the Risk from Volcano Hazards |url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/1997/fs113-97/fs113-97.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060217063847/https://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/1997/fs113-97/fs113-97.pdf |archive-date=February 17, 2006 |access-date=April 22, 2023 |publisher=[[United States Department of the Interior|U.S. Department of the Interior]]; [[United States Geological Survey|U.S. Geological Survey]] |oclc=731752857}}</ref>]] The return of democracy and government reforms which began in 1986 were hampered by [[National debt of the Philippines|national debt]], government corruption, and [[Coup attempts against Corazon Aquino|coup attempts]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Kingsbury |first=Damien |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8CQlDwAAQBAJ |title=Politics in Contemporary Southeast Asia: Authority, Democracy and Political Change |date=September 13, 2016 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London, England |isbn=978-1-317-49628-1 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8CQlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA132 132] |author-link1=Damien Kingsbury |access-date=September 28, 2020 |archive-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230212193225/https://books.google.com/books?id=8CQlDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Timberman-1991" />{{rp|pages=xii, xiii}} A [[Communist rebellion in the Philippines|communist insurgency]]<ref>{{cite book|editor-last1=Tan |editor-first1=Andrew T. H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZzMmpCinBYoC |title=A Handbook of Terrorism and Insurgency in Southeast Asia |date=January 2009 |publisher=[[Edward Elgar Publishing]] |location=Cheltenham, England |isbn=978-1-84720-718-0 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZzMmpCinBYoC&pg=PA405 405]}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|date=February 14, 2011 |title=The Communist Insurgency in the Philippines: Tactics and Talks |url=https://www.refworld.org/pdfid/4d5a310e2.pdf |journal=Asia Report N°202 |publisher=[[International Crisis Group]] |pages=5–7 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806030349/https://www.refworld.org/pdfid/4d5a310e2.pdf |archive-date=August 6, 2020 |access-date=September 2, 2020 |oclc=905388916 |via=Refworld}}</ref> and military conflict with [[Moro conflict|Moro separatists]] persisted;<ref>{{#invoke:cite news||last=Mydans |first=Seth |date=September 14, 1986 |title=Philippine Communists Are Spread Widely, but Not Thinly |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1986/09/14/weekinreview/philippine-communists-are-spread-widely-but-not-thinly.html |access-date=September 2, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150524190820/https://www.nytimes.com/1986/09/14/weekinreview/philippine-communists-are-spread-widely-but-not-thinly.html |archive-date=May 24, 2015}}</ref> the administration also faced a series of disasters, including the eruption of [[Mount Pinatubo]] in June 1991.<ref name=usgs/> Aquino was succeeded by [[Fidel V. Ramos]], who [[Economic liberalization|liberalized]] the national economy with [[privatization]] and [[deregulation]].<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Pecotich |editor-first1=Anthony |editor-last2=Shultz |editor-first2=Clifford J. |title=Handbook of Markets and Economies: East Asia, Southeast Asia, Australia, New Zealand: East Asia, Southeast Asia, Australia, New Zealand |date=July 22, 2016 |publisher=[[M. E. Sharpe]] |location=Armonk, N.Y. |isbn=978-1-315-49875-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ySe3DAAAQBAJ&pg=PT546 |language=en |access-date=March 22, 2023 |archive-date=March 22, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322171259/https://books.google.com/books?id=ySe3DAAAQBAJ&pg=PT546 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ortega |first1=Arnisson Andre |title=Neoliberalizing Spaces in the Philippines: Suburbanization, Transnational Migration, and Dispossession |date=September 9, 2016 |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |location=Lanham, Md. |isbn=978-1-4985-3052-1 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=wDTVDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA51 51–52] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wDTVDAAAQBAJ |language=en |access-date=March 22, 2023 |archive-date=March 22, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322171253/https://books.google.com/books?id=wDTVDAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> Ramos' economic gains were overshadowed by the onset of the [[1997 Asian financial crisis]].<ref name="NYTimes-Gargan-1997">{{#invoke:cite news||last=Gargan |first=Edward A. |date=December 11, 1997 |title=Last Laugh for the Philippines; Onetime Joke Economy Avoids Much of Asia's Turmoil |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1997/12/11/business/last-laugh-for-philippines-onetime-joke-economy-avoids-much-asia-s-turmoil.html |access-date=January 25, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091228024452/https://www.nytimes.com/1997/12/11/business/last-laugh-for-philippines-onetime-joke-economy-avoids-much-asia-s-turmoil.html |archive-date=December 28, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Pempel |editor-first1=T. J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sTAuUXE_ANsC |title=The Politics of the Asian Economic Crisis |publisher=[[Cornell University Press]] |location=Ithaca, N.Y. |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-8014-8634-0 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=sTAuUXE_ANsC&pg=163 163] |author-link1=T. J. Pempel |access-date=March 28, 2016 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203074317/https://books.google.com/books?id=sTAuUXE_ANsC |url-status=live }}</ref> His successor, [[Joseph Estrada]], prioritized public housing<ref>{{cite journal|last=Rebullida |first=Ma. Lourdes G. |date=December 2003 |title=The Politics of Urban Poor Housing: State and Civil Society Dynamics |url=https://www.pssc.org.ph/wp-content/pssc-archives/Philippine%20Political%20Science%20Journal/2003/06_The%20Political%20of%20Urban%20Poor%20Housing_%20State%20and%20Civil%20Society%20Dynamics.pdf |journal=Philippine Political Science Journal |publisher=Philippine Political Science Association |volume=24 |issue=47 |page=56 |doi=10.1080/01154451.2003.9754247 |s2cid=154441392 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511215251/https://www.pssc.org.ph/wp-content/pssc-archives/Philippine%20Political%20Science%20Journal/2003/06_The%20Political%20of%20Urban%20Poor%20Housing_%20State%20and%20Civil%20Society%20Dynamics.pdf |archive-date=May 11, 2021 |access-date=February 12, 2023}}</ref> but faced corruption allegations<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bhargava |first1=Vinay Kumar |last2=Bolongaita |first2=Emil P. |title=Challenging Corruption in Asia: Case Studies and a Framework for Action |series=Directions in Development |date=2004 |publisher=[[World Bank Publications]] |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=978-0-8213-5683-8 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=gHS1bTsu2IUC&pg=PA78 78] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gHS1bTsu2IUC |language=en |access-date=March 22, 2023 |archive-date=March 22, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322171257/https://books.google.com/books?id=gHS1bTsu2IUC |url-status=live }}</ref> which led to his overthrow by the [[Second EDSA Revolution|2001 EDSA Revolution]] and the succession of Vice President [[Gloria Macapagal Arroyo]] on January 20, 2001.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news||last=Landler |first=Mark |date=February 9, 2001 |title=In Philippines, The Economy As Casualty; The President Ousted, a Credibility Repair Job |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/02/09/business/philippines-economy-casualty-president-ousted-credibility-repair-job.html |access-date=February 8, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100119090537/https://www.nytimes.com/2001/02/09/business/philippines-economy-casualty-president-ousted-credibility-repair-job.html |archive-date=January 19, 2010 |author-link1=Mark Landler}}</ref> Arroyo's [[Presidency of Gloria Macapagal Arroyo|nine-year administration]] was marked by economic growth,<ref name="CIAWorldFactBook" /> but was tainted by corruption and political scandals,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hutchcroft |first1=Paul D. (Paul David) |title=The Arroyo Imbroglio in the Philippines |journal=[[Journal of Democracy]] |date=2008 |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=141–155 |doi=10.1353/jod.2008.0001 |issn=1086-3214 |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/1/article/230460 |access-date=June 16, 2023 |publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]] |s2cid=144031968 |via=[[Project MUSE]] |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news||last=Dizon |first=David |date=August 4, 2010 |title=Corruption was Gloria's biggest mistake: survey |work=[[ABS-CBN News]] |url=http://www.abs-cbnnews.com/nation/08/04/10/corruption-was-glorias-biggest-mistake-survey |access-date=April 15, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100806185404/http://www.abs-cbnnews.com/nation/08/04/10/corruption-was-glorias-biggest-mistake-survey |archive-date=August 6, 2010}}</ref> including [[Hello Garci scandal|electoral fraud allegations]] during the [[2004 Philippine presidential election|2004 presidential election]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=McCoy |first1=Alfred W. |author1-link=Alfred W. McCoy |title=Policing America's Empire: The United States, the Philippines, and the Rise of the Surveillance State |date=October 15, 2009 |publisher=[[University of Wisconsin Press]] |location=Madison, Wis. |isbn=978-0-299-23413-3 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QYj6WUGsRuEC&pg=PA498 498] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QYj6WUGsRuEC |access-date=October 21, 2023 |language=en}}</ref> Economic growth continued during [[Benigno Aquino III]]'s administration, which advocated good governance and transparency.<ref name="Lum-Dolven-2014">{{cite report|last1=Lum |first1=Thomas |last2=Dolven |first2=Ben |date=May 15, 2014 |title=The Republic of the Philippines and U.S. Interests—2014 |url=https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R43498/7 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220417070815/https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R43498/7 |archive-date=April 17, 2022 |access-date=September 14, 2020 |website=[[CRS Reports]] |publisher=[[Congressional Research Service]] |oclc=1121453557}}</ref>{{rp|pages=1, 3}}<ref>{{#invoke:cite news||last=Lucas |first=Dax |date=June 8, 2012 |title=Aquino attributes growth to good governance |newspaper=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]] |url=https://globalnation.inquirer.net/39227/aquino-attributes-growth-to-good-governance |access-date=September 14, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120610044835/https://globalnation.inquirer.net/39227/aquino-attributes-growth-to-good-governance |archive-date=June 10, 2012}}</ref> Aquino III signed [[Comprehensive Agreement on the Bangsamoro|a peace agreement]] with the [[Moro Islamic Liberation Front]] (MILF) resulting in the [[Bangsamoro Organic Law]] establishing an autonomous [[Bangsamoro]] region, but a [[Mamasapano clash|shootout with MILF rebels in Mamasapano]] delayed passage of the law.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Buendia |first1=Rizal G. |title=The politics of the Bangsamoro Basic Law |date=2015 |isbn=<!-- ISBN unspecified --> |pages=3–5 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/294888285 |access-date=May 2, 2023 |publisher=Yuchengco Center, [[De La Salle University]] |language=en |doi=10.13140/RG.2.1.3954.9205/1 |doi-access=free |oclc=1243908970 |via=[[ResearchGate]]}} {{No ISBN}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news||last=Clapano |first=Jose Rodel |date=February 3, 2016 |title=Congress buries Bangsamoro bill |work=[[The Philippine Star]] |url=https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2016/02/03/1549507/congress-buries-bangsamoro-bill |access-date=August 24, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180920054536/https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2016/02/03/1549507/congress-buries-bangsamoro-bill |archive-date=September 20, 2018}}</ref> [[Rodrigo Duterte]], elected president [[2016 Philippine presidential election|in 2016]],<ref>{{#invoke:cite news||last=Alberto-Masakayan |first=Thea |date=May 27, 2016 |title=Duterte, Robredo win 2016 polls |work=[[ABS-CBN News]] |url=http://news.abs-cbn.com/halalan2016/nation/05/27/16/duterte-robredo-win-2016-polls/ |access-date=May 27, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160528141509/http://news.abs-cbn.com/halalan2016/nation/05/27/16/duterte-robredo-win-2016-polls/ |archive-date=May 28, 2016}}</ref> launched [[Build! Build! Build!|an infrastructure program]]<ref>{{#invoke:cite news||last=Nicolas |first=Fiona |date=November 4, 2016 |title=Big projects underway in 'golden age' of infrastructure |work=[[CNN Philippines]] |url=https://cnnphilippines.com/news/2016/11/04/golden-age-infrastructure-Duterte-administration-Arthur-Tugade-Mark-Villar-Ernesto-Pernia-Vince-Dizon.html |access-date=September 13, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161107131039/https://cnnphilippines.com/news/2016/11/04/golden-age-infrastructure-Duterte-administration-Arthur-Tugade-Mark-Villar-Ernesto-Pernia-Vince-Dizon.html |archive-date=November 7, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news||last=de Vera |first=Ben O. |date=August 6, 2020 |title=Build, Build, Build's 'new normal': 13 projects added, 8 removed |newspaper=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]] |url=https://business.inquirer.net/304612/build-build-builds-new-normal-8-projects-added-13-removed |access-date=September 13, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200817063018/https://business.inquirer.net/304612/build-build-builds-new-normal-8-projects-added-13-removed |archive-date=August 17, 2020}}</ref> and [[Philippine drug war|an anti-drug campaign]]<ref>{{#invoke:cite news||last1=Baldwin |first1=Clare |author1-link=Clare Baldwin |last2=Marshall |first2=Andrew R.C. |date=March 16, 2017 |title=Between Duterte and a death squad, a Philippine mayor fights drug-war violence |work=[[Reuters]] |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-philippines-drugs-mayor-idUSKBN16N33I |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170316234452/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-philippines-drugs-mayor-idUSKBN16N33I |archive-date=March 16, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news||last=Merez |first=Arianne |date=March 29, 2019 |title=5,000 killed and 170,000 arrested in war on drugs: police |work=[[ABS-CBN News]] |url=https://news.abs-cbn.com/news/02/28/19/5000-killed-and-170000-arrested-in-war-on-drugs-police |access-date=April 16, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190329213700/https://news.abs-cbn.com/news/02/28/19/5000-killed-and-170000-arrested-in-war-on-drugs-police |archive-date=March 29, 2019}}</ref> which reduced drug proliferation<ref>{{#invoke:cite news||last=Caliwan |first=Christopher Lloyd |date=March 30, 2022 |title=Over 24K villages 'drug-cleared' as of February: PDEA |language=en |work=[[Philippine News Agency]] |url=https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1171001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331184448/https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1171001 |archive-date=March 31, 2022}}</ref> but has also led to [[extrajudicial killing]]s.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news||last=Romero |first=Alexis |date=December 26, 2017 |title=Duterte gov't probing over 16,000 drug war-linked deaths as homicide, not EJK |work=[[The Philippine Star]] |url=https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2017/12/26/1771944/duterte-govt-probing-over-16000-drug-war-linked-deaths-homicide-not-ejk |access-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171226113810/https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2017/12/26/1771944/duterte-govt-probing-over-16000-drug-war-linked-deaths-homicide-not-ejk |archive-date=December 26, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news||last=Kabiling |first=Genalyn |date=March 5, 2021 |title=Duterte unfazed by drug war criticisms: 'You want me to go prison? So be it' |work=[[Manila Bulletin]] |url=https://mb.com.ph/2021/03/05/duterte-unfazed-by-drug-war-criticisms-you-want-me-to-go-prison-so-be-it/ |access-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210305123210/https://mb.com.ph/2021/03/05/duterte-unfazed-by-drug-war-criticisms-you-want-me-to-go-prison-so-be-it/ |archive-date=March 5, 2021}}</ref> The Bangsamoro Organic Law was enacted in 2018.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news||last=Maitem |first=Jeoffrey |date=January 25, 2019 |title=It's Official: Majority in So. Philippines Backs Muslim Autonomy Law |language=en |work=[[BenarNews]] |url=https://www.benarnews.org/english/news/philippine/BOL-plebiscite-01252019131530.html |access-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190126214617/https://www.benarnews.org/english/news/philippine/BOL-plebiscite-01252019131530.html |archive-date=January 26, 2019}}</ref> In early 2020, the [[COVID-19 pandemic in the Philippines|COVID-19 pandemic]] reached the Philippines;<ref>{{#invoke:cite news||date=January 30, 2020 |title=Philippines confirms first case of new coronavirus |work=[[ABS-CBN News]] |url=https://news.abs-cbn.com/news/01/30/20/philippines-confirms-first-case-of-new-coronavirus |access-date=January 30, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200130083057/https://news.abs-cbn.com/news/01/30/20/philippines-confirms-first-case-of-new-coronavirus |archive-date=January 30, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news||last=Cordero |first=Ted |date=March 7, 2020 |title=DOH recommends declaration of public health emergency after COVID-19 local transmission |work=[[GMA News Online]] |url=https://www.gmanetwork.com/news/news/nation/728715/doh-recommends-declaration-of-public-health-emergency-after-covid-19-local-transmission/story/ |access-date=March 7, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200308064057/https://www.gmanetwork.com/news/news/nation/728715/doh-recommends-declaration-of-public-health-emergency-after-covid-19-local-transmission/story/ |archive-date=March 8, 2020}}</ref> its gross domestic product [[COVID-19 recession|shrank]] by 9.5 percent, the country's worst annual economic performance since 1947.<ref>{{#invoke:cite news||last=Venzon |first=Cliff |date=January 28, 2021 |title=Philippines GDP shrinks 9.5% in 2020, worst since 1947 |work=[[Nikkei Asia]] |url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Economy/Philippines-GDP-shrinks-9.5-in-2020-worst-since-1947 |access-date=January 31, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128061938/https://asia.nikkei.com/Economy/Philippines-GDP-shrinks-9.5-in-2020-worst-since-1947 |archive-date=January 28, 2021}}</ref> Marcos' son, [[Bongbong Marcos]], won the [[2022 Philippine presidential election|2022 presidential election]]; Duterte's daughter, [[Sara Duterte|Sara]], became [[Vice President of the Philippines|vice president]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite news||date=May 10, 2022 |title=Ferdinand "Bongbong" Marcos wins the Philippine presidency in a landslide |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |url=https://www.economist.com/asia/ferdinand-bongbong-marcos-wins-the-philippine-presidency-in-a-landslide/21809220 |access-date=June 21, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220510114935/https://www.economist.com/asia/ferdinand-bongbong-marcos-wins-the-philippine-presidency-in-a-landslide/21809220 |archive-date=May 10, 2022}}</ref> Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. 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