Philanthropy

==Europe==

===Great Britain ===
[[File:The Foundling Hospital, Holborn, London; a bird's-eye view o Wellcome V0013461.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Foundling Hospital]] in London, {{circa|1753}}. The original building has since been demolished.]]

In London, prior to the 18th century, parochial and civic charities were typically established by bequests and operated by local church parishes (such as [[St Dionis Backchurch]]) or [[guild]]s (such as the [[Worshipful Company of Carpenters|Carpenters' Company)]]. During the 18th century, however, "a more activist and explicitly [[Protestant]] tradition of direct charitable engagement during life" took hold, exemplified by the creation of the [[Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge]] and [[Societies for the Reformation of Manners]].<ref name="London">{{cite web|url=https://www.londonlives.org/static/AssociationalCharities.jsp|title=Associational Charities|website=London Lives|access-date=29 January 2016}}</ref>

In 1739, [[Thomas Coram]], appalled by the number of abandoned children living on the streets of London, received a royal charter to establish the [[Foundling Hospital]] to look after these unwanted orphans in Lamb's Conduit Fields, [[Bloomsbury]].<ref name="Foundling">{{cite web|first=Jacqueline|last=Banerjee|url=https://www.victorianweb.org/history/orphanages/coram1.html|title=Captain Coram and the Foundling Hospital|work=The Victorian Web|access-date=29 January 2016}}</ref> This was "the first children's charity in the country, and one that 'set the pattern for incorporated associational charities' in general."<ref name="Foundling"/> The hospital "marked the first great milestone in the creation of these new-style charities."<ref name="London"/>

[[Jonas Hanway]], another notable philanthropist of the era, established [[The Marine Society]] in 1756 as the first seafarer's charity, in a bid to aid the recruitment of men to the [[Royal Navy|navy]].<ref>{{cite book|author-link=N. A. M. Rodger|first=N.A.M.|last=Roger|title=The Command of the Ocean: A Naval History of Britain 1649–1815|url=https://archive.org/details/commandofoceanna0000rodg_v3r3|url-access=registration|location=New York|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2004|page=[https://archive.org/details/commandofoceanna0000rodg_v3r3/page/313/mode/1up 313]|isbn=978-0-393-32847-9 }}</ref> By 1763, the society had recruited over 10,000 men and it was incorporated in 1772. Hanway was also instrumental in establishing the [[Magdalen Hospital]] to rehabilitate prostitutes. These organizations were funded by subscriptions and run as voluntary associations. They raised public awareness of their activities through the emerging popular press and were generally held in high social regard—some charities received state recognition in the form of the [[Royal Charter]].

====19th century====
[[File:William wilberforce.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.8|[[William Wilberforce]], a prominent British philanthropist and [[Abolition of the Slave Trade|anti-slavery campaigner]]]]

Philanthropists, such as [[Abolition of the Slave Trade|anti-slavery campaigner]] [[William Wilberforce]], began to adopt active campaigning roles, where they would champion a cause and lobby the government for legislative change. This included organized campaigns against the ill-treatment of animals and children and the campaign that succeeded in ending the [[History of slavery|slave trade]] throughout the Empire starting in 1807.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Louis Taylor|last=Merrill|title=The English campaign for abolition of the slave trade|url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.2307/2715027|url-access=subscription|journal=Journal of Negro History|volume=30|number=4|year=1945|pages= 382–399|jstor=2715027|doi=10.2307/2715027 |s2cid=150275678 }}</ref> Although there were no slaves allowed in Britain itself, many rich men owned sugar plantations in the West Indies, and resisted the movement to buy them out until it finally succeeded in 1833.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Christer|last=Petley|title='Devoted Islands' and 'that Madman Wilberforce': British Proslavery Patriotism during the Age of Abolition|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03086534.2011.598744|url-access=subscription|journal=Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History|volume=39|number=3|year=2011|pages=393–415|doi=10.1080/03086534.2011.598744 |s2cid=159547077 }}</ref>

Financial donations to organized charities became fashionable among the middle class in the 19th century. By 1869 there were over 200 London charities with an annual income, all together, of about {{currency|2 million|GBP|passthrough=yes}}. By 1885, rapid growth had produced over 1000 London charities, with an income of about {{currency|4.5 million|GBP|passthrough=yes|linked=no}}. They included a wide range of religious and secular goals, with the American import, [[YMCA]], as one of the largest, and many small ones, such as the Metropolitan Drinking Fountain Association. In addition to making annual donations, increasingly wealthy industrialists and financiers left generous sums in their wills. A sample of 466 wills in the 1890s revealed a total wealth of {{currency|76 million|GBP|passthrough=yes|linked=no}}, of which {{currency|20 million|GBP|passthrough=yes|linked=no}} was bequeathed to charities. By 1900 London charities enjoyed an annual income of about {{currency|8.5 million|GBP|passthrough=yes|linked=no}}.<ref name=Read>{{cite book|first=Donald|last=Read|title=The age of urban democracy: England 1868–1914|url=https://archive.org/details/ageofurbandemocr0000read|url-access=registration|orig-year=1979|year=1994|isbn=0582089212|edition=revised|publisher=Longman}}</ref>{{rp|[https://archive.org/details/ageofurbandemocr0000read/page/125/mode/1up 125]}}

Led by the energetic [[Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 7th Earl of Shaftesbury|Lord Shaftesbury]] (1801–1885), philanthropists organized themselves.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Geoffrey|last=Finlayson|title=The Victorian Shaftesbury|journal=History Today|date=March 1983|volume=33|number=3|pages=31–35}}</ref> In 1869 they set up the [[Charity Organisation Society]]. It was a federation of district committees, one in each of the 42 Poor Law divisions. Its central office had experts in coordination and guidance, thereby maximizing the impact of charitable giving to the poor.{{r|Read|page=[https://archive.org/details/ageofurbandemocr0000read/page/125/mode/1up 125]}} Many of the charities were designed to alleviate the harsh living conditions in the slums. such as the [[Labourer's Friend Society]] founded in 1830. This included the promotion of allotment of land to labourers for "cottage husbandry" that later became the allotment movement. In 1844 it became the first [[Model Dwellings Company]]—an organization that sought to improve the housing conditions of the working classes by building new homes for them, while at the same time receiving a competitive rate of return on any investment. This was one of the first [[housing association]]s, a philanthropic endeavor that flourished in the second half of the nineteenth century, brought about by the growth of the [[middle class]]. Later associations included the [[Peabody Trust]], and the [[Guinness Trust]]. The principle of philanthropic intention with capitalist return was given the label "five per cent philanthropy."<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite journal | last = Siegel|first= Fred | year = 1974 | title = Five Per Cent Philanthropy: An Account of Housing in Urban Areas Between 1840 and 1914. By John Nelson Tarn… [Book Review] | journal = [[The Journal of Economic History]] | volume = 34 | issue = 4, December | pages =1061f | doi = 10.1017/S0022050700089683 | s2cid = 154468207 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-economic-history/article/abs/five-percent-philanthropy-an-account-of-housing-in-urban-areas-between-1840-and-1914-by-john-nelson-tarn-cambridge-cambridge-university-press-1973-pp-ii-181-135-plates-2350/908F3785A1E06CDBE15C3BD1348369C3 |url-access=subscription}}
|2={{cite book | author = Tarn, John Nelson | year = 1973 | title = Five Per Cent Philanthropy: An Account of Housing in Urban Areas Between 1840 and 1914 | location = Cambridge, U.K. | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn = 978-0521085069 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/fivepercentphila0000tarn/page/n19/mode/1up xiv], [https://archive.org/details/fivepercentphila0000tarn/page/23/mode/1up 23], and ''passim'' | url = https://archive.org/details/fivepercentphila0000tarn | url-access=registration }} }}</ref>

===Switzerland===
{{Main|International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|International Committee of the Red Cross}}
[[File:Sisters of Mercy at the Battle of Gravelotte.jpg|thumb|left|The [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|Red Cross]], after the [[Battle of Gravelotte]] in 1870]]

In 1863, the Swiss businessman [[Henry Dunant]] used his fortune to fund the Geneva Society for Public Welfare, which became the [[International Committee of the Red Cross]]. During the [[Franco-Prussian War]] of 1870, Dunant personally led Red Cross delegations that treated soldiers. He shared the first [[Nobel Peace Prize]] for this work in 1901.<ref>{{cite book|first=David P.|last=Forsythe|title=The Humanitarians: The International Committee of the Red Cross|url=https://archive.org/details/humanitariansint0000fors|url-access=registration|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2005}}</ref>

The [[International Committee of the Red Cross]] (ICRC) played a major role in working with [[prisoner of war|POW]]s on all sides in [[World War II]]. It was in a cash-starved position when the war began in 1939, but quickly mobilized its national offices to set up a Central Prisoner of War Agency. For example, it provided food, mail and assistance to 365,000 British and Commonwealth soldiers and civilians held captive. Suspicions, especially by London, of ICRC as too tolerant or even complicit with Nazi Germany led to its side-lining in favour of the [[United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration|UN Relief and Rehabilitation Administration]] (UNRRA) as the primary humanitarian agency after 1945.<ref>{{cite book|first=James|last=Crossland|title=Britain and the International Committee of the Red Cross, 1939–1945|publisher=Plagrave MacMillan|year=2014}}</ref>

===France===
[[File:Postcard - Institut Pasteur - Salle des Cours 2000 001 085 g158bh40z.tiff|thumb|right|Men and woman working in a classroom at the [[Pasteur Institute|Institut Pasteur]] in Paris, {{circa|1920}}]]

The [[French Red Cross]] played a minor role in the war with Germany (1870–71). After that, it became a major factor in shaping French civil society as a non-religious humanitarian organization. It was closely tied to the army's [[French Armed Forces Health Service|Service de Santé]]. By 1914 it operated one thousand local committees with 164,000 members, 21,500 trained nurses, and over {{currency|27 million|FRF|passthrough=yes|first}} in assets.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Chrastil | first=Rachel | title=The French Red Cross, War Readiness, and Civil Society, 1866–1914 | journal=French Historical Studies | publisher=Duke University Press | volume=31 | issue=3 | year=2008 | issn=0016-1071 | doi=10.1215/00161071-2008-003 | pages=445–476 | url=https://read.dukeupress.edu/french-historical-studies/article-abstract/31/3/445/9591/The-French-Red-Cross-War-Readiness-and-Civil | url-access=subscription }}</ref>

The [[Pasteur Institute]] had a monopoly of specialized microbiological knowledge, allowing it to raise money for serum production from private and public sources, walking the line between a commercial pharmaceutical venture and a philanthropic enterprise.<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=18351159|year=2007|last1=Simon|first1=J|title=The origin of the production of diphtheria antitoxin in France, between philanthropy and commerce|journal=Dynamis: Acta Hispanica Ad Medicinae Scientiarumque Historiam Illustrandam|volume=27|pages=63–82|s2cid=31847730 }}</ref>

By 1933, at the depth of the [[Great Depression]], the French wanted a [[welfare state]] to relieve distress but did not want new taxes. [[War veterans]] devised a solution: the new national lottery proved highly popular to gamblers while generating the cash needed without raising taxes.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Delalande | first=Nicolas | title=Giving and Gambling: The Gueules Cassées, the National Lottery, and the Moral Economy of the Welfare State in 1930s France | journal=French Historical Studies | publisher=Duke University Press | volume=40 | issue=4 | year=2017 | issn=0016-1071 | doi=10.1215/00161071-3946492 | pages=623–649 | url=https://read.dukeupress.edu/french-historical-studies/article-abstract/40/4/623/130488/Giving-and-GamblingThe-Gueules-Cassees-the|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

American money proved invaluable. The Rockefeller Foundation opened an office in Paris and helped design and fund France's modern public health system under the National Institute of Hygiene. It also set up schools to train physicians and nurses.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite journal|first=William H.|last=Schneider|title=War, philanthropy, and the National Institute of Hygiene in France|journal=Minerva|volume=41|number=1|year=2003|pages=1–23|doi=10.1023/A:1022257805553 |s2cid=141342924 }}
|2={{cite journal | last=Smith | first=Timothy B. | title=The Social Transformation of Hospitals and the Rise of Medical Insurance in France, 1914–1943 | journal=The Historical Journal | publisher=Cambridge University Press (CUP) | volume=41 | issue=4 | year=1998 | issn=0018-246X | doi=10.1017/s0018246x98008164 | pages=1055–1087| s2cid=159631276 }}
}}</ref>

===Germany===
The history of modern philanthropy on the European continent is especially important in the case of Germany, which became a model for others, especially regarding the [[welfare state]]. The princes and the various imperial states continued traditional efforts, funding monumental buildings, parks, and art collections. Starting in the early 19th century, the rapidly emerging [[middle class]]es made local philanthropy a way to establish their legitimate role in shaping society, pursuing ends different from the [[aristocracy]] and the military. They concentrated on support for [[social welfare]], [[higher education]], and cultural institutions, as well as working to alleviate the [[Industrial Revolution#Criticisms|hardships]] brought on by rapid [[industrialization]]. The [[bourgeoisie]] (upper-middle class) was defeated in its effort to gain political control in [[1848]], but it still had enough money and organizational skills that could be employed through philanthropic agencies to provide an alternative power base for its worldview.<ref name=Adam>{{cite book|first=Thomas|last=Adam|title=Philanthropy, Civil Society, and the State in German history, 1815–1989|year=2016}}</ref>

Religion was divisive in Germany, as Protestants, Catholics, and Jews used alternative philanthropic strategies. The Catholics, for example, continued their medieval practice of using financial donations in their wills to lighten their punishment in [[purgatory]] after death. The Protestants did not believe in purgatory, but made a strong commitment to improving their communities there and then. Conservative Protestants raised concerns about deviant sexuality, alcoholism, and socialism, as well as illegitimate births. They used philanthropy to try to eradicate what they considered as "social evils" that were seen as utterly sinful.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite journal | last=Lees | first=Andrew | title=Deviant Sexuality and Other 'Sins': The Views of Protestant Conservatives in Imperial Germany | journal=German Studies Review | publisher=JSTOR | volume=23 | issue=3 | year=2000 | pages=453–476 | issn=0149-7952 | doi=10.2307/1432829 | jstor=1432829 }}
|2={{cite book|first=Andrew|last=Lees|title=Cities, Sin, and Social Reform in Imperial Germany|year=2002|publisher=The University of Michigan Press|location=Ann Arbor}}
}}</ref> All the religious groups used financial endowments, which multiplied in number and wealth as Germany grew richer. Each was devoted to a specific benefit to that religious community, and each had a board of trustees; laymen donated their time to public service.

Chancellor [[Otto von Bismarck]], an upper class [[Junker]], used his state-sponsored philanthropy, in the form of his invention of the modern welfare state, to neutralize the political threat posed by the [[socialistic]] [[labor union]]s.<ref>{{cite book|first=Dimitris N. |last=Chorafas|title=Education and Employment in the European Union: The Social Cost of Business|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fWIWDAAAQBAJ|url-access=limited|year=2016|publisher=Routledge|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=fWIWDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA255 255]|isbn=9781317145936}}</ref> The middle classes, however, made the most use of the new welfare state, in terms of heavy use of museums, [[Gymnasium (school)|gymnasium]]s (high schools), universities, scholarships, and hospitals. For example, state funding for universities and gymnasiums covered only a fraction of the cost; private philanthropy became essential. 19th-century Germany was even more oriented toward civic improvement than Britain or the United States, when measured in voluntary private funding for public purposes. Indeed, such German institutions as the [[kindergarten]], the [[research university]], and the welfare state became models copied by the Anglo-Saxons.{{r|Adam|pages=1–7}}

The heavy human and economic losses of the [[First World War]], the financial crises of the 1920s, as well as the [[Nazi]] regime and other devastation by 1945, seriously undermined and weakened the opportunities for widespread philanthropy in Germany. The civil society so elaborately built up in the 19th century was dead by 1945. However, by the 1950s, as the "[[economic miracle]]" was restoring German prosperity, the old aristocracy was defunct, and middle-class philanthropy started to return to importance.{{r|Adam|pages=142–73}}

===War and postwar: Belgium and Eastern Europe===
[[File:"Wanted Immediately. 2,000,000 Garments for destitute Men, Women, and children in occupied Northern France and... - NARA - 512616.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.9|Poster requesting clothing for occupied France and Belgium]]

The [[Commission for Relief in Belgium]] (CRB) was an international (predominantly American) organization that arranged for the supply of food to German-occupied Belgium and northern France during the First World War. It was led by [[Herbert Hoover]].<ref>{{cite journal|first=George H.|last=Nash|title=An American Epic: Herbert Hoover and Belgian Relief in World War I|journal=Prologue|year=1989|volume=21|number=1|pages=75–86}}</ref> Between 1914 and 1919, the CRB operated entirely with voluntary efforts and was able to feed eleven million Belgians by raising money, obtaining voluntary contributions of money and food, shipping the food to Belgium and controlling it there. For example, the CRB shipped 697,116,000 pounds of flour to Belgium.<ref name=Burner>{{cite book|first=David|last=Burner|title=Herbert Hoover: A Public Life|url=https://archive.org/details/herberthooverpub0000burn|url-access=registration|year=1978|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|isbn=978-0-394-46134-2 }}</ref>{{rp|[https://archive.org/details/herberthooverpub0000burn/page/72/mode/2up 72]–95}} Biographer George Nash finds that by the end of 1916, Hoover "stood preeminent in the greatest humanitarian undertaking the world had ever seen."<ref>{{cite book|first=George H.|last=Nash|title=The Life of Herbert Hoover: The Humanitarian, 1914–1917|year=1988|page=249}}</ref> Biographer William Leuchtenburg adds, "He had raised and spent millions of dollars, with trifling overhead and not a penny lost to fraud. At its peak, his organization fed nine million Belgians and French daily.<ref name=Leuchtenburg>{{cite book|first=William E.|last=Leuchtenburg|title=Herbert Hoover |url=https://archive.org/details/herberthoover00leuc|url-access=registration|year=2009|publisher=Macmillan |isbn=9781429933490 }}</ref>{{rp|[https://archive.org/details/herberthoover00leuc/page/30/mode/1up 30]}}

When the war ended in late 1918, Hoover took control of the [[American Relief Administration]] (ARA), with the mission of food{{clarify|reason=delivering? distributing? cultivating? need some sort of verb here to describe the mission|date=August 2023}} to Central and Eastern Europe. The ARA fed millions.{{r|Burner|pages=[https://archive.org/details/herberthooverpub0000burn/page/114/mode/2up 114]–137}} U.S. government funding for the ARA expired in the summer of 1919, and Hoover transformed the ARA into a private organization, raising millions of dollars from private donors. Under the auspices of the ARA, the European Children's Fund fed millions of starving children. When attacked for distributing food to Russia, which was under Bolshevik control, Hoover snapped, "Twenty million people are starving. Whatever their politics, they shall be fed!"{{r|Leuchtenburg|page=[https://archive.org/details/herberthoover00leuc/page/58/mode/1up 58]}}<ref>{{cite book|first1=Frank M.|last1=Surface|first2=Raymond L.|last2=Bland|title=American food in the world war and reconstruction period: operations of the organizations under the direction of Herbert Hoover, 1914 to 1924|publisher=Stanford University Press|year=1932|url=https://archive.org/details/americanfoodinwo00fran}}</ref>