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Switch editorYou have switched to source editingCloseYou can switch back to visual editing at any time by clicking on this icon.Visual editingSource editingMorePreviewAdvancedSpecial charactersHelpHeadingLevel 2Level 3Level 4Level 5FormatInsertLatinLatin extendedIPASymbolsGreekGreek extendedCyrillicArabicArabic extendedHebrewBanglaTamilTeluguSinhalaDevanagariGujaratiThaiLaoKhmerCanadian AboriginalRunesÁáÀàÂâÄäÃãǍǎĀāĂ㥹ÅåĆćĈĉÇçČčĊċĐđĎďÉéÈèÊêËëĚěĒēĔĕĖėĘęĜĝĢģĞğĠġĤĥĦħÍíÌìÎîÏïĨĩǏǐĪīĬĭİıĮįĴĵĶķĹĺĻļĽľŁłŃńÑñŅņŇňÓóÒòÔôÖöÕõǑǒŌōŎŏǪǫŐőŔŕŖŗŘřŚśŜŝŞşŠšȘșȚțŤťÚúÙùÛûÜüŨũŮůǓǔŪūǖǘǚǜŬŭŲųŰűŴŵÝýŶŷŸÿȲȳŹźŽžŻżÆæǢǣØøŒœßÐðÞþƏəFormattingLinksHeadingsListsFilesDiscussionReferencesDescriptionWhat you typeWhat you getItalic''Italic text''Italic textBold'''Bold text'''Bold textBold & italic'''''Bold & italic text'''''Bold & italic textDescriptionWhat you typeWhat you getReferencePage text.<ref>[https://www.example.org/ Link text], additional text.</ref>Page text.[1]Named referencePage text.<ref name="test">[https://www.example.org/ Link text]</ref>Page text.[2]Additional use of the same referencePage text.<ref name="test" />Page text.[2]Display references<references />↑ Link text, additional text.↑ Link text==History== {{main|History of New Orleans}} {{For timeline}} ===French–Spanish colonial era=== {{main|Louisiana (New France)|New France|Treaty of Paris (1763)|Louisiana (New Spain)|New Spain}} {{See also|Seven Years' War|French and Indian War|Gulf Coast campaign|Spain and the American Revolutionary War|Third Treaty of San Ildefonso|Treaty of Aranjuez (1801)}} {{Quote box | title = Historical affiliations | quote = {{flag|Kingdom of France}} 1718–1763<br />{{flag|Kingdom of Spain|1785}} 1763–1802<br />{{flag|French First Republic}} 1802–1803<br />{{flagu|United States|1804|name=United States of America}} 1803–1861<br />{{flagicon image|Louisiana Feb 11 1861.svg}} [[State of Louisiana]] 1861<br />{{flag|Confederate States of America}} 1861–1862<br />{{flag|United States of America}} 1862–present | align = right | width = 24em | fontsize = 90% | bgcolor = #B0C4DE }} ''La Nouvelle-Orléans'' (New Orleans) was founded in the spring of 1718 (May 7 has become the traditional date to mark the anniversary, but the actual day is unknown)<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.wwltv.com/article/news/verify/verify-does-new-orleans-have-an-actual-birthday/289-499684457 |title=VERIFY: Does New Orleans have an actual birthday? |website=WWL |date=December 15, 2017 |access-date=June 30, 2019 |archive-date=June 30, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190630222522/https://www.wwltv.com/article/news/verify/verify-does-new-orleans-have-an-actual-birthday/289-499684457 |url-status=live }}</ref> by the [[Mississippi Company|French Mississippi Company]], under the direction of [[Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville]], on land inhabited by the [[Chitimacha]]. It was named for [[Philippe II, Duke of Orléans]], who was [[regent]] of the [[Kingdom of France]] at the time.<ref name=":0" /> His title came from the French city of [[Orléans]]. The [[Louisiana (New France)|French colony]] of Louisiana was ceded to the [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|Spanish Empire]] in the [[Treaty of Paris (1763)|1763 Treaty of Paris]], following [[France in the Seven Years' War|France's defeat]] by [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] in the [[Seven Years' War]]. During the [[American Revolutionary War]], New Orleans was an important [[port]] for [[smuggling]] aid to the [[Thirteen Colonies|American revolutionaries]], and transporting military equipment and supplies up the [[Mississippi River]]. Beginning in the 1760s, [[Overseas Filipinos|Filipinos]] began to settle in and around New Orleans.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/ancestorsintheamericas/program1_1.html |title=Part 1. Coolies, Sailors and Settlers |first=Loni |last=Ding |year=2001 |work=NAATA |publisher=[[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]] |access-date=May 19, 2011 |quote=Some of the Filipinos who left their ships in Mexico ultimately found their way to the bayous of Louisiana, where they settled in the 1760s. The film shows the remains of Filipino shrimping villages in Louisiana, where, eight to ten generations later, their descendants still reside, making them the oldest continuous settlement of Asians in America. |archive-date=May 16, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120516002553/http://www.pbs.org/ancestorsintheamericas/program1_1.html |url-status=live }}<br />{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/ancestorsintheamericas/time_06.html |title=1763 Filipinos in Louisiana |first=Loni |last=Ding |year=2001 |work=NAATA |publisher=[[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]] |access-date=May 19, 2011 |quote=These are the "Louisiana Manila men" with presence recorded as early as 1763. |archive-date=March 21, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120321101112/http://www.pbs.org/ancestorsintheamericas/time_06.html |url-status=live }}<br />{{cite web |url=http://www.louisianafolklife.org/LT/Articles_Essays/pilipino1.html |title=Mabuhay Pilipino! (Long Life!): Filipino Culture in Southeast Louisiana |last=Westbrook |first=Laura |date=2008 |website=Louisiana Folklife Program |publisher=Louisiana Department of Culture, Recreation & Tourism |access-date=May 13, 2018 |archive-date=May 18, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180518005511/http://www.louisianafolklife.org/LT/Articles_Essays/Pilipino1.html |url-status=live }}<br />{{cite magazine |last=Fabros |first=Alex S. Jr. |date=February 1995 |title=When Hilario Met Sally: The Fight Against Anti-Miscegenation Laws |url=http://www.positivelyfilipino.com/magazine/when-hilario-met-sally-the-fight-against-anti-miscegenation-laws |magazine=Filipinas Magazine |via=Positively Filipino |location=Burlingame, California |publisher=Positively Filipino LLC |access-date=August 25, 2018 |archive-date=August 26, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180826005441/http://www.positivelyfilipino.com/magazine/when-hilario-met-sally-the-fight-against-anti-miscegenation-laws |url-status=live }}<br />{{cite book |first=Floro L. |last=Mercene |title=Manila Men in the New World: Filipino Migration to Mexico and the Americas from the Sixteenth Century |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OSqhZphG_gQC&pg=PA106 |year=2007 |publisher=UP Press |isbn=978-971-542-529-2 |pages=106–08 |access-date=September 19, 2018 |archive-date=January 10, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240110084847/https://books.google.com/books?id=OSqhZphG_gQC&pg=PA106#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid, Count of Gálvez]] successfully directed a southern campaign against the British from the city in 1779.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mitchell |first=Barbara |title=America's Spanish Savior: Bernardo de Gálvez marches to rescue the colonies |journal=MHQ: The Quarterly Journal of Military History |pages=98–104 |date=Autumn 2010 |url=http://www.historynet.com/americas-spanish-savior-bernardo-de-galvez.htm |access-date=June 11, 2016 |archive-date=June 5, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160605055349/http://www.historynet.com/americas-spanish-savior-bernardo-de-galvez.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> ''Nueva Orleans'' (the name of New Orleans in [[Spanish language|Spanish]])<ref name="Presas">{{cite book |author=[[José Presas y Marull]] |url=http://simurg.bibliotecas.csic.es/viewer/image/CSIC000227068/23/#topDocAnchor |title=Juicio imparcial sobre las principales causas de la revolución de la América Española y acerca de las poderosas razones que tiene la metrópoli para reconocer su absoluta independencia. (original document) |publisher=Imprenta de D. Pedro Beaume |year=1828 |location=Burdeaux |pages=22, 23 |trans-title=Fair judgment about the main causes of the revolution of Spanish America and about the powerful reasons that the metropolis has for recognizing its absolute independence |access-date=December 18, 2019 |archive-date=November 9, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109032714/http://simurg.bibliotecas.csic.es/viewer/image/CSIC000227068/23/#topDocAnchor |url-status=live }}</ref> remained under Spanish control until 1803, when it reverted briefly to [[French First Republic|French]] rule. Nearly all of the surviving 18th-century [[architecture]] of the Vieux Carré ([[French Quarter]]) dates from the Spanish period, notably excepting the [[Old Ursuline Convent, New Orleans|Old Ursuline Convent]].<ref>{{cite web |title=National Park Service. Survey of Historic Sites and Buildings. Ursuline Convent |url=https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/explorers/sitec23.htm |access-date=September 10, 2010 |archive-date=December 15, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215122950/https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/explorers/sitec23.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>[[File:Natchez_Massacre_location.png|alt=|thumb|227x227px|The Revolt took place in what is now [[Natchez National Historical Park]] in [[Natchez, Mississippi]].]] As a French colony, [[French Louisiana|Louisiana]] faced struggles with numerous [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American tribes]], who were navigating the competing interests of France, Spain, and England, as well as traditional rivals. Notably, the [[Natchez people|Natchez]], whose traditional lands were along the Mississippi near the modern city of [[Natchez, Mississippi]], had a series of wars culminating in the [[Natchez revolt|Natchez Revolt]] that began in 1729 with the Natchez overrunning [[Fort Rosalie]]. Approximately 230 French colonists were killed and the Natchez settlement destroyed, causing fear and concern in New Orleans and the rest of the territory.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Slave Resistance in Natchez, Mississippi (1719–1861) {{!}} Mississippi History Now |url=http://mshistorynow.mdah.state.ms.us/articles/58/slave-resistance-in-natchez-mississippi-1719-1861 |access-date=2020-10-28 |website=mshistorynow.mdah.state.ms.us |archive-date=October 26, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201026070753/http://mshistorynow.mdah.state.ms.us/articles/58/slave-resistance-in-natchez-mississippi-1719-1861 |url-status=dead}}</ref> In retaliation, then-governor [[Étienne Perier (governor)|Étienne Perier]] launched a campaign to [[Genocide of indigenous peoples|completely destroy]] the Natchez nation and its Native allies.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gayarré |first=Charles |author-link=Charles Gayarré |title=History of Louisiana: The French Domination |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p3IFAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA447 |volume=1 |year=1854 |publisher=Redfield |location=New York, New York |pages=447–450 |access-date=August 14, 2021 |archive-date=January 10, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240110084803/https://books.google.com/books?id=p3IFAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA447#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> By 1731, the Natchez people had been killed, enslaved, or dispersed among other tribes, but the campaign soured relations between France and the territory's Native Americans leading directly into the [[Chickasaw Wars]] of the 1730s.{{sfn|Gayarré|1854|page=450}} Relations with Louisiana's Native American population remained a concern into the 1740s for governor [[Pierre de Rigaud, marquis de Vaudreuil-Cavagnial|Marquis de Vaudreuil]]. In the early 1740s traders from the [[Thirteen Colonies]] crossed into the Appalachian Mountains. The Native American tribes would now operate dependent on which of various European colonists would most benefit them. Several of these tribes and especially the [[Chickasaw]] and [[Choctaw]] would trade goods and gifts for their loyalty.<ref>{{cite book |title=Louisiana: A History |edition=6th |editor1-last=Wall |editor1-first=Bennett H. |editor2-last=Rodrigue |editor2-first=John C. |last1=Cummins |first1=Light Townsend |author-link1=Light Townsend Cummins |last2=Kheher Schafer |first2=Judith |last3=Haas |first3=Edward F. |last4=Kurtz |first4=Micahel L. |year=2014 |publisher=Wiley Blackwell |location=Malden, Massachusetts |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aQPZAQAAQBAJ |page=59 |isbn=9781118619292 |access-date=October 28, 2020 |archive-date=January 10, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240110084820/https://books.google.com/books?id=aQPZAQAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> The economic issue in the colony, which continued under Vaudreuil, resulted in many raids by Native American tribes, taking advantage of the French weakness. In 1747 and 1748, the Chickasaw would raid along the east bank of the Mississippi all the way south to Baton Rouge. These raids would often force residents of French Louisiana to take refuge in New Orleans proper. Inability to find labor was the most pressing issue in the young colony. The colonists turned to [[Slavery in the colonial United States|sub-Saharan African slaves]] to make their investments in Louisiana profitable. In the late 1710s the [[Atlantic slave trade|transatlantic slave trade]] imported enslaved Africans into the colony. This led to the biggest shipment in 1716 where several trading ships appeared with slaves as cargo to the local residents in a one-year span. By 1724, the large number of blacks in Louisiana prompted the institutionalizing of laws governing slavery within the colony.<ref>{{Cite web |last=BlackPast |date=2007-07-28 |title=(1724) Louisiana's Code Noir |url=https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/louisianas-code-noir-1724/ |access-date=2020-10-28 |language=en-US |archive-date=October 27, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201027190710/https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/louisianas-code-noir-1724/ |url-status=live }}</ref> These laws required that slaves be baptized in the Roman Catholic faith, slaves be married in the church; the slave law formed in the 1720s is known as the [[Code Noir]], which would bleed into the antebellum period of the American South as well. Louisiana slave culture had its own distinct Afro-Creole society that called on past cultures and the situation for slaves in the [[New World]]. Afro-Creole was present in religious beliefs and the [[Louisiana Creole]] language. The religion most associated with this period was called [[Louisiana Voodoo|Voodoo]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=From Benin to Bourbon Street: A Brief History of Louisiana Voodoo |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/r7g5ar/from-benin-to-bourbon-street-a-brief-history-of-louisiana-voodoo |access-date=2020-10-28 |website=www.vice.com |date=October 5, 2014 |language=en |archive-date=November 1, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101201752/https://www.vice.com/en/article/r7g5ar/from-benin-to-bourbon-street-a-brief-history-of-louisiana-voodoo |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The True History and Faith Behind Voodoo |url=http://www.frenchquarter.com/true-history-faith-behind-voodoo/ |access-date=2020-10-28 |website=FrenchQuarter.com |language=en-US |archive-date=November 1, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101013201/https://www.frenchquarter.com/true-history-faith-behind-voodoo/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In the city of New Orleans an inspiring mixture of foreign influences created a melting pot of culture that is still celebrated today. By the end of French colonization in Louisiana, New Orleans was recognized commercially in the Atlantic world. Its inhabitants traded across the French commercial system. New Orleans was a hub for this trade both physically and culturally because it served as the exit point to the rest of the globe for the interior of the North American continent. In one instance the French government established a chapter house of sisters in New Orleans. The [[History of the Ursulines in New Orleans|Ursuline sisters]] after being sponsored by the [[Company of the Indies]], founded a convent in the city in 1727.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=The Ursulines of Louisiana |last=Cruzat |first=Heloise Hulse |url=https://www2.latech.edu/~bmagee/louisiana_anthology/texts/cruzat/cruzat--ursulines.html |access-date=2020-10-28 |journal=The Louisiana Historical Quarterly |year=1919 |volume=2 |number=1 |archive-date=March 16, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210316070359/https://www2.latech.edu/~bmagee/louisiana_anthology/texts/cruzat/cruzat--ursulines.html |url-status=live }}</ref> At the end of the colonial era, the Ursuline Academy maintained a house of 70 boarding and 100 day students. Today numerous schools in New Orleans can trace their lineage from this academy. [[File:Archives nationales d’outre-mer - Louisiane - Adrien de Pauger - 1724 - 001.jpg|alt=|left|thumb|1724 plan for Saint Louis Parish Church, New Orleans, Louisiana, by [[Adrien de Pauger]]]] Another notable example is the street plan and architecture still distinguishing New Orleans today. French Louisiana had early architects in the province who were trained as military engineers and were now assigned to design government buildings. Pierre Le Blond de Tour and [[Adrien de Pauger]], for example, planned many early fortifications, along with the street plan for the city of New Orleans.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pauger's Savvy Move |url=https://richcampanella.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/article_Campanella_Preservation-in-Print_2014_May_Pauger-Savvy-Move.pdf |access-date=October 28, 2020 |website=richcampanella.com |archive-date=June 9, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200609051806/https://richcampanella.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/article_Campanella_Preservation-in-Print_2014_May_Pauger-Savvy-Move.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> After them in the 1740s, Ignace François Broutin, as engineer-in-chief of Louisiana, reworked the architecture of New Orleans with an extensive public works program. French policy-makers in Paris attempted to set political and economic norms for New Orleans. It acted autonomously in much of its cultural and physical aspects, but also stayed in communication with the foreign trends as well. After the French relinquished West Louisiana to the Spanish, New Orleans merchants attempted to ignore Spanish rule and even re-institute French control on the colony. The citizens of New Orleans held a series of public meetings during 1765 to keep the populace in opposition of the establishment of Spanish rule. Anti-Spanish passions in New Orleans reached their highest level after two years of Spanish administration in Louisiana. On October 27, 1768, a mob of local residents, spiked the guns guarding New Orleans and [[Louisiana Rebellion of 1768|took control of the city from the Spanish]].{{sfn|Cummins|Kheher Schafer|Haas|Kurtz|2014|page=70}} The rebellion organized a group to sail for Paris, where it met with officials of the French government. This group brought with them a long memorial to summarize the abuses the colony had endured from the Spanish. King Louis XV and his ministers reaffirmed Spain's sovereignty over Louisiana. ===United States territorial era=== {{Main|Louisiana Purchase|Territory of Orleans|Dominican Creoles}} The [[Third Treaty of San Ildefonso]] in 1800 restored French control of New Orleans and Louisiana, but [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]] sold both to the United States in the [[Louisiana Purchase]] in 1803.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Louisiana Purchase |url=https://www.monticello.org/thomas-jefferson/louisiana-lewis-clark/the-louisiana-purchase/ |access-date=2020-10-28 |website=Monticello |language=en |archive-date=March 21, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190321075505/https://www.monticello.org/site/jefferson/louisiana-purchase |url-status=live }}</ref> Thereafter, the city grew rapidly with influxes of Americans, [[French people|French]], [[Louisiana Creole people|Creoles]] and [[Demographics of Africa|Africans]]. Later immigrants were [[Irish people|Irish]], [[Germans]], [[Polish people|Poles]] and [[Italians]]. Major [[commodity crops]] of [[sugar cane|sugar]] and [[cotton]] were cultivated with [[Slavery in the United States|slave]] labor on nearby large [[Plantations in the American South|plantations]]. Between 1791 and 1810, thousands of [[Saint Dominicans|St. Dominican]] [[refugee]]s from the [[Haitian Revolution]], both [[White people|whites]] and [[free people of color]] (''affranchis'' or ''gens de couleur libres''), arrived in New Orleans; a number brought their slaves with them, many of whom were native Africans or of full-blood descent.<ref name="Lachance1988">{{cite journal |title=The 1809 Immigration of Saint-Domingue Refugees to New Orleans: Reception, Integration and Impact |first=Paul F. |last=Lachance |journal=Louisiana History: The Journal of the Louisiana Historical Association |volume=29 |number=2 |year=1988 |page=110 |jstor=4232650}}</ref> While Governor [[William C.C. Claiborne|Claiborne]] and other officials wanted to keep out additional [[Free negro|free black]] people, the French Creoles wanted to increase the French-speaking population. In addition to bolstering the territory's French-speaking population, these refugees had a significant impact on the culture of Louisiana, including developing its sugar industry and cultural institutions.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Road to Louisiana: The Saint-Domingue Refugees 1792–1809 |editor1-last=Brasseaux |editor1-first=Carl A. |editor1-link=Carl A. Brasseaux |editor2-last=Conrad |editor2-first=Glenn R. |publisher=University of Louisiana at Lafayette Press |year=2016 |location=Lafayette, Louisiana |isbn=9781935754602 |url=https://ulpress.org/products/the-road-to-louisiana-the-saint-domigue-refugees-1792-1809 |access-date=August 14, 2021 |archive-date=August 13, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813222610/https://ulpress.org/products/the-road-to-louisiana-the-saint-domigue-refugees-1792-1809 |url-status=live }}</ref> As more refugees were allowed into the [[Territory of Orleans]], [[Saint Dominicans|St. Dominican]] refugees who had first gone to [[Cuba]] also arrived.<ref name="AAM"/> Many of the white [[Geographical distribution of French speakers|Francophones]] had been deported by officials in Cuba in 1809 as retaliation for [[Bonapartist]] schemes.{{sfn|Gitlin |2009|p= 54}} Nearly 90 percent of these immigrants settled in New Orleans. The 1809 migration brought 2,731 whites, 3,102 free people of color (of [[mixed-race]] European and African descent), and 3,226 slaves of primarily African descent, doubling the city's population. The city became 63 percent black, a greater proportion than [[Charleston, South Carolina]]'s 53 percent at that time.<ref name="AAM">[http://www.inmotionaame.org/migrations/topic.cfm?migration=5&topic=3 "Haitian Immigration: 18th & 19th Centuries"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612141448/http://www.inmotionaame.org/migrations/topic.cfm?migration=5&topic=3 |date=June 12, 2018 }}, ''In Motion: African American Migration Experience'', New York Public Library, accessed May 7, 2008</ref> ===Battle of New Orleans=== {{main|Battle of New Orleans|War of 1812}} [[File:Battle of New Orleans.jpg|thumb|The [[Battle of New Orleans (1815)]]]] [[File:Plan of the city and suburbs of New Orleans.jpg|alt=Plan of the city and suburbs of New Orleans : from an actual survey made in 1815|thumb|Plan of the city and suburbs of New Orleans: from a survey made in 1815<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://coololdphotos.com/rare-1815-plan-of-the-city-and-suburbs-of-new-orleans/ |title=Rare 1815 Plan of the City and Suburbs of New Orleans |last=Tom |date=March 18, 2015 |website=Cool Old Photos |language=en-US |access-date=February 23, 2019 |archive-date=February 23, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190223131536/https://coololdphotos.com/rare-1815-plan-of-the-city-and-suburbs-of-new-orleans/ |url-status=live }}</ref>]] During the final campaign of the [[War of 1812]], the British sent a force of 11,000 in an attempt to capture New Orleans. Despite great challenges, General [[Andrew Jackson]], with support from the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]], successfully cobbled together a force of [[United States Militia|militia]] from Louisiana and [[Mississippi Territory|Mississippi]], [[United States Army|U.S. Army]] regulars, a large contingent of [[Tennessee]] state militia, [[Kentucky]] [[American pioneers|frontiersmen]] and local [[privateer]]s (the latter led by the [[Piracy|pirate]] [[Jean Lafitte]]), to decisively defeat the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|British]], led by [[Edward Pakenham|Sir Edward Pakenham]], in the Battle of New Orleans on January 8, 1815.<ref name="Groom2007"/> The armies had not learned of the [[Treaty of Ghent]], which had been signed on December 24, 1814 (however, the treaty did not call for cessation of hostilities until after both governments had ratified it. The U.S. government ratified it on February 16, 1815). The fighting in Louisiana began in December 1814 and did not end until late January, after the Americans held off the [[Royal Navy]] during a ten-day [[Siege of Fort St. Philip (1815)|siege of Fort St. Philip]] (the Royal Navy went on to capture [[Fort Bowyer]] near [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]], before the commanders received news of the peace treaty).<ref name="Groom2007">{{cite book |last=Groom |first=Winston |title=Patriotic Fire: Andrew Jackson and Jean Laffite at the Battle of New Orleans |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nE3S3TnCGk4C |year=2007 |publisher=Vintage Books |isbn=978-1-4000-9566-7 |access-date=January 10, 2024 |archive-date=January 10, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240110084854/https://books.google.com/books?id=nE3S3TnCGk4C |url-status=live }}</ref> ===Port=== [[File:Hippolyte Sebron - Bateaux A Vapeur Géants 1853.jpg|thumb|left|Mississippi River [[Steamboats of the Mississippi|steamboats]] at New Orleans, 1853]] As a [[port]], New Orleans played a major role during the [[Antebellum South|antebellum]] period in the [[Atlantic slave trade]]. The port handled commodities for export from the interior and imported goods from other countries, which were warehoused and transferred in New Orleans to smaller vessels and distributed along the Mississippi River watershed. The river was filled with steamboats, flatboats and sailing ships. Despite its role in the [[History of slavery|slave trade]], New Orleans at the time also had the largest and most prosperous community of free persons of color in the nation, who were often educated, middle-class property owners.<ref name="pbsjazz">{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/jazz/places/places_new_orleans.htm |title=New Orleans: The Birthplace of Jazz |website=PBS – JAZZ A Film By Ken Burns |format=primarily excerpted from Jazz: A History of America's Music |access-date=May 17, 2006 |archive-date=August 12, 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060812000720/http://www.pbs.org/jazz/places/places_new_orleans.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=History of Les Gens De Couleur Libres |url=http://www.creolehistory.com/ |access-date=May 17, 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060522221017/http://www.creolehistory.com/ |archive-date=May 22, 2006}}</ref> Dwarfing the other cities in the Antebellum South, New Orleans had the U.S.' largest slave market. The market expanded after the United States ended the international trade in 1808. Two-thirds of the more than one million slaves brought to the [[Deep South]] arrived via [[forced migration]] in the domestic slave trade. The money generated by the sale of slaves in the [[Upper South]] has been estimated at 15 percent of the value of the staple crop economy. The slaves were collectively valued at half a billion dollars. The trade spawned an ancillary economy—transportation, housing and clothing, fees, etc., estimated at 13.5 percent of the price per person, amounting to tens of billions of dollars (2005 dollars, adjusted for inflation) during the antebellum period, with New Orleans as a prime beneficiary.<ref>Walter Johnson, ''Soul by Soul: Life Inside the Antebellum Slave Market'', Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1999, pp. 2, 6</ref> According to historian Paul Lachance, {{blockquote|the addition of white immigrants [from Saint-Domingue] to the white creole population enabled French-speakers to remain a majority of the white population until almost 1830. If a substantial proportion of free persons of color and slaves had not also spoken French, however, the [[Gaul|Gallic]] community would have become a minority of the total population as early as 1820.{{sfn|Gitlin|2009|p=159}}}} After the Louisiana Purchase, numerous [[English Americans|Anglo-Americans]] migrated to the city. The population doubled in the 1830s and by 1840, New Orleans had become the nation's wealthiest and the third-most populous city, after [[New York City|New York]] and [[Baltimore]].<ref>Lewis, Peirce F., ''New Orleans: The Making of an Urban Landscape'', Santa Fe, 2003, p. 175</ref> German and Irish immigrants began arriving in the 1840s, working as port laborers. In this period, the state legislature passed more restrictions on [[manumission]]s of slaves and virtually ended it in 1852.<ref name="manumission"/> In the 1850s, white Francophones remained an intact and vibrant community in New Orleans. They maintained instruction in French in two of the city's four school districts (all served white students).{{sfn|Gitlin|2009|p= 166}} In 1860, the city had 13,000 free people of color (''gens de couleur libres''), the class of free, mostly [[Multiracial Americans|mixed-race]] people that expanded in number during French and Spanish rule. They set up some private schools for their children. The census recorded 81 percent of the free people of color as [[mulatto]], a term used to cover all degrees of mixed race.<ref name="manumission">[http://www.kotlikoff.net/sites/default/files/The%20Manumission%20of%20Slaves%20in%20New%20Orleans,%201827-1846.pdf Lawrence J. Kotlikoff and Anton J. Rupert, "The Manumission of Slaves in New Orleans, 1827–1846"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140408225223/http://www.kotlikoff.net/sites/default/files/The%20Manumission%20of%20Slaves%20in%20New%20Orleans,%201827-1846.pdf |date=April 8, 2014 }}, ''Southern Studies'', Summer 1980</ref>{{page needed|date=February 2024}} Mostly part of the Francophone group, they constituted the artisan, educated and professional class of African Americans. The mass of blacks were still enslaved, working at the port, in domestic service, in crafts, and mostly on the many large, surrounding [[sugarcane]] plantations. Throughout New Orleans' history, until the early 20th century when medical and scientific advances ameliorated the situation, the city suffered repeated [[List of epidemics and pandemics|epidemic]]s of [[yellow fever]] and other tropical and [[Infection|infectious diseases]].<ref>{{cite news |title=How Yellow Fever Turned New Orleans Into The 'City Of The Dead' |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2018/10/31/415535913/how-yellow-fever-turned-new-orleans-into-the-city-of-the-dead |work=NPR |date=October 31, 2018 |access-date=July 21, 2023 |archive-date=June 28, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230628214054/https://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2018/10/31/415535913/how-yellow-fever-turned-new-orleans-into-the-city-of-the-dead |url-status=live }}</ref> In the first half of the 19th century, yellow fever epidemics killed over 150,000 people in New Orleans.<ref>{{cite news |title=A lesson from history: How the yellow fever epidemic changed society |url=https://www.pleasantonweekly.com/news/2020/05/10/a-lesson-from-history-how-the-yellow-fever-epidemic-changed-society#:~:text=Yellow%20fever%20killed%20more%20than,with%20references%20to%20yellow%20fever. |work=[[Palo Alto Weekly]] |date=May 10, 2020 |access-date=July 21, 2023 |archive-date=July 21, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230721161220/https://www.pleasantonweekly.com/news/2020/05/10/a-lesson-from-history-how-the-yellow-fever-epidemic-changed-society#:~:text=Yellow%20fever%20killed%20more%20than,with%20references%20to%20yellow%20fever. |url-status=live }}</ref> After growing by 45 percent in the 1850s, by 1860, the city had nearly 170,000 people.<ref name="nystrom">{{cite book |last=Nystrom |first=Justin A. |title=New Orleans after the Civil War: Race, Politics, and a New Birth of Freedom |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=ZXYUCz-PjCAC |page=6}} |year=2010 |publisher=JHU Press |isbn=978-0-8018-9997-3 |pages=6–}}</ref> It had grown in wealth, with a "per capita income [that] was second in the nation and the highest in the South."<ref name="nystrom"/> The city had a role as the "primary commercial gateway for the nation's booming midsection."<ref name="nystrom"/> The port was the nation's third largest in terms of tonnage of imported goods, after Boston and New York, handling 659,000 tons in 1859.<ref name="nystrom"/> ===Civil War–Reconstruction era=== {{See also|New Orleans in the American Civil War|Louisiana in the American Civil War}} [[File:StarvingNewOrleans.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.15|The starving people of New Orleans under Union occupation during the Civil War, 1862]] As the Creole elite feared, the [[American Civil War]] changed their world. In April 1862, following the city's occupation by the Union Navy after the [[Battle of Forts Jackson and St. Philip]], [[Benjamin Butler (politician)|Gen. Benjamin F. Butler]] – a respected Massachusetts lawyer serving in that state's militia – was appointed military governor. New Orleans residents supportive of the Confederacy nicknamed him "Beast" Butler, because of an order he issued. After his troops had been assaulted and harassed in the streets by women still loyal to the Confederate cause, his order warned that such future occurrences would result in his men treating such women as those "plying their avocation in the streets", implying that they would treat the women like prostitutes. Accounts of this spread widely. He also came to be called "Spoons" Butler because of the alleged looting that his troops did while occupying the city, during which time he himself supposedly pilfered silver flatware.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Benjamin Butler |url=https://64parishes.org/entry/benjamin-butler |access-date=2021-07-29 |website=64 Parishes |language=en |archive-date=June 16, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210616112819/https://64parishes.org/entry/benjamin-butler/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Significantly, Butler abolished French-language instruction in city schools. Statewide measures in 1864 and, after the war, 1868 further strengthened the English-only policy imposed by federal representatives. With the predominance of English speakers, that language had already become dominant in business and government.{{sfn|Gitlin|2009|p= 166}} By the end of the 19th century, French usage had faded. It was also under pressure from Irish, Italian and German immigrants.{{sfn|Gitlin|2009|p= 180}} However, as late as 1902 "one-fourth of the population of the city spoke French in ordinary daily intercourse, while another two-fourths was able to understand the language perfectly,"<ref>''[[Leslie's Weekly]]'', December 11, 1902</ref> and as late as 1945, many elderly Creole women spoke no English.<ref>Robert Tallant & Lyle Saxon, ''Gumbo Ya-Ya: Folk Tales of Louisiana'', Louisiana Library Commission: 1945, p. 178</ref> The last major French language newspaper, ''[[L'Abeille de la Nouvelle-Orléans]]'' (New Orleans Bee), ceased publication on December 27, 1923, after 96 years.<ref name="Brasseaux2005">{{cite book |last=Brasseaux |first=Carl A. |title=French, Cajun, Creole, Houma: A Primer on Francophone Louisiana |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j2IAZ7563soC&pg=PA32 |year=2005 |page=32 |publisher=LSU Press |isbn=978-0-8071-3036-0 |access-date=January 10, 2024 |archive-date=January 10, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240110084808/https://books.google.com/books?id=j2IAZ7563soC&pg=PA32#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> According to some sources, ''Le Courrier de la Nouvelle Orleans'' continued until 1955.<ref>''New Orleans City Guide''. The [[Federal Writers' Project]] of the Works Progress Administration: 1938, p. 90</ref> As the city was captured and occupied early in the war, it was spared the destruction through warfare suffered by many other cities of the [[Southern United States|American South]]. The [[Union Army]] eventually extended its control north along the [[Mississippi River]] and along the coastal areas. As a result, most of the southern portion of Louisiana was originally exempted from the liberating provisions of the 1863 [[Emancipation Proclamation]] issued by President [[Abraham Lincoln]]. Large numbers of rural ex-slaves and some free people of color from the city volunteered for the first regiments of Black troops in the War. Led by Brigadier General [[Daniel Ullman]] (1810–1892), of the 78th Regiment of New York State Volunteers Militia, they were known as the "[[United States Colored Troops|Corps d'Afrique]]". While that name had been used by a militia before the war, that group was composed of [[free people of color]]. The new group was made up mostly of former slaves. They were supplemented in the last two years of the War by newly organized [[United States Colored Troops]], who played an increasingly important part in the war.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ustica.org/san_bartolomeo/catalog/civilwar.htm |title=Usticesi in the United States Civil War |publisher=The Ustica Connection |date=March 22, 2003 |access-date=July 29, 2018 |archive-date=February 16, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190216050549/http://www.ustica.org/san_bartolomeo/catalog/civilwar.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Violence throughout the South, especially the [[Memphis Riots of 1866]] followed by the [[New Orleans Riot]] in the same year, led Congress to pass the [[Reconstruction Act]] and the [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourteenth Amendment]], extending the protections of full citizenship to freedmen and free people of color. Louisiana and [[Texas]] were put under the authority of the "[[Fifth Military District]]" of the United States during Reconstruction. Louisiana was readmitted to the Union in 1868. Its Constitution of 1868 granted [[Universal manhood suffrage|universal male suffrage]] and established universal [[State school|public education]]. Both blacks and whites were elected to local and state offices. In 1872, lieutenant governor [[P.B.S. Pinchback]], who was of [[mixed race]], succeeded [[Henry C. Warmouth|Henry Clay Warmouth]] for a brief period as Republican governor of Louisiana, becoming the first governor of African descent of a U.S. state (the next African American to serve as governor of a U.S. state was [[Douglas Wilder]], elected in Virginia in 1989). New Orleans operated a racially integrated [[New Orleans Public Schools|public school system]] during this period. Wartime damage to [[levees]] and cities along the Mississippi River adversely affected southern crops and trade. The federal government contributed to restoring infrastructure. The nationwide financial recession and [[Panic of 1873]] adversely affected businesses and slowed economic recovery. [[File:White_and_black_dockworkers_rest_on_cotton_bales_in_New_Orleans_in_1902.jpg|thumb|187x187px|Black and white [[New Orleans dock workers and unionization|dockworkers]] resting on cotton bales.]] From 1868, elections in Louisiana were marked by violence, as white insurgents tried to suppress black voting and disrupt [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] gatherings. The disputed 1872 gubernatorial election resulted in conflicts that ran for years. The "[[White League]]", an insurgent paramilitary group that supported the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]], was organized in 1874 and operated in the open, violently suppressing the black vote and running off Republican officeholders. In 1874, in the [[Battle of Liberty Place]], 5,000 members of the White League fought with city police to take over the state offices for the Democratic candidate for governor, holding them for three days. By 1876, such tactics resulted in the white [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrats]], the so-called [[Redeemers]], regaining political control of the state legislature. The federal government gave up and withdrew its troops in 1877, ending [[Reconstruction Era|Reconstruction]]. In 1892 the racially integrated unions of New Orleans led a [[1892 New Orleans general strike|general strike in the city]] from November 8 to 12, shutting down the city & winning the vast majority of their demands.<ref>Foner, ''History of the Labor Movement in the United States, Vol. 2: From the Founding of the American Federation of Labor to the Emergence of American Imperialism,'' 1955, p. 203.</ref><ref>Cook, "The Typographical Union and the New Orleans General Strike of 1892," ''Louisiana History,'' 1983; "Labor Trouble In New-Orleans," ''New York Times,'' November 5, 1892.</ref> ===Jim Crow era=== [[Dixiecrats]] passed [[Jim Crow]] laws, establishing [[racial segregation]] in public facilities. In 1889, the legislature passed a [[constitutional amendment]] incorporating a "[[grandfather clause]]" that effectively [[Disfranchisement after Reconstruction era|disfranchised]] freedmen as well as the propertied people of color [[Manumission|manumitted]] before the war. Unable to vote, African Americans could not serve on juries or in local office, and were closed out of formal politics for generations. The Southern U.S. was ruled by a white Democratic Party. Public schools were [[Racial segregation|racially segregated]] and remained so until 1960. New Orleans' large community of well-educated, often French-speaking [[free persons of color]] (''gens de couleur libres''), who had been free prior to the Civil War, fought against Jim Crow. They organized the ''Comité des Citoyens'' (Citizens Committee) to work for civil rights. As part of their legal campaign, they recruited one of their own, [[Homer Plessy]], to test whether Louisiana's newly enacted Separate Car Act was constitutional. Plessy boarded a commuter train departing New Orleans for [[Covington, Louisiana]], sat in the car reserved for whites only, and was arrested. The case resulting from this incident, ''[[Plessy v. Ferguson]]'', was heard by the [[Supreme Court of the United States|U.S. Supreme Court]] in 1896. The court ruled that "[[separate but equal]]" accommodations were constitutional, effectively upholding Jim Crow measures. In practice, African American public schools and facilities were underfunded across the South. The Supreme Court ruling contributed to this period as the [[Nadir of American race relations|nadir of race relations]] in the United States. The rate of [[Lynching in the United States|lynchings]] of black men was high across the South, as other states also disfranchised blacks and sought to impose Jim Crow. Nativist prejudices also surfaced. [[Anti-Italianism#Anti-Italianism in the United States|Anti-Italian]] sentiment in 1891 contributed to the [[March 14, 1891 lynchings|lynchings of 11 Italians]], some of whom had been acquitted of the murder of the police chief. Some were shot and killed in the jail where they were detained. It was the largest mass lynching in U.S. history.<ref>{{cite web |ref={{harvid|Library of Congress}} |title=Immigration / Italian |website=Library of Congress |url=https://www.loc.gov/teachers/classroommaterials/presentationsandactivities/presentations/immigration/italian8.html |access-date=December 29, 2017 |archive-date=June 28, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628191345/http://www.loc.gov/teachers/classroommaterials/presentationsandactivities/presentations/immigration/italian8.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Gambino2000">{{cite book |last=Gambino |first=Richard |author-link=Richard Gambino |title=Vendetta: The True Story of the Largest Lynching in U.S. History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jA9-dmAsoMwC |year=2000 |publisher=Guernica Editions |isbn=978-1-55071-103-5 |access-date=January 10, 2024 |archive-date=January 10, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240110084854/https://books.google.com/books?id=jA9-dmAsoMwC |url-status=live }}</ref> In July 1900 the city was swept by white mobs rioting after Robert Charles, a young African American, killed a policeman and temporarily escaped. The mob killed him and an estimated 20 other blacks; seven whites died in the days-long conflict, until a [[Militia (United States)|state militia]] suppressed it. ===20th century=== [[File:EsplanadeBurgundy1900.jpg|right|thumb|[[Esplanade Avenue, New Orleans|Esplanade Avenue]] at Burgundy Street, looking lakewards (north) towards [[Lake Pontchartrain]] in 1900]] [[File:RationingBoardNOLAVachonC.jpg|right|thumb|1943 waiting line at wartime Rationing Board office in New Orleans]] [[File:Nixon in New Orleans August 1970 - Royal at Iberville Streets heading to Canal Street.png|thumb|[[Richard Nixon]] in New Orleans, August 1970. Royal at Iberville Streets, heading to Canal Street.]] New Orleans' economic and population zenith in relation to other American cities occurred in the antebellum period. It was the nation's fifth-largest city in 1860 (after New York, [[Philadelphia]], [[Boston]] and Baltimore) and was significantly larger than all other southern cities.<ref name="Lewis-2003–175">Lewis, Peirce F., ''New Orleans: The Making of an Urban Landscape'', Santa Fe, 2003, p. 175.</ref> From the mid-19th century onward rapid economic growth shifted to other areas, while New Orleans' relative importance steadily declined. The growth of railways and highways decreased river traffic, diverting goods to other transportation corridors and markets.<ref name="Lewis-2003–175" /> Thousands of the most ambitious [[Person of color|people of color]] left the state in the [[Great Migration (African American)|Great Migration]] around [[World War II]] and after, many for [[West Coast of the United States|West Coast]] destinations. From the late 1800s, most censuses recorded New Orleans slipping down the ranks in the list of largest American cities (New Orleans' population still continued to increase throughout the period, but at a slower rate than before the Civil War). In 1929 the [[1929 New Orleans streetcar strike|New Orleans streetcar strike]] during which serious unrest occurred.<ref>{{cite web |title=July 1, 1929: Streetcar Workers Strike in New Orleans |url=https://www.zinnedproject.org/news/tdih/streetcar-workers-strike-new-orleans/ |website=Zinn Education Project |access-date=July 16, 2023 |archive-date=July 16, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230716050306/https://www.zinnedproject.org/news/tdih/streetcar-workers-strike-new-orleans/ |url-status=live }}</ref> It is also credited for the creation of the distinctly Louisianan [[Po' boy]] sandwich.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Mizell-Nelson |first1=Michael |title=1929 Streetcar Strike - Stop 4 of 9 in the Streetcars and their Historian Michael Mizell-Nelson tour |url=https://neworleanshistorical.org/items/show/514 |website=New Orleans Historical |language=en |access-date=July 16, 2023 |archive-date=July 16, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230716050250/https://neworleanshistorical.org/items/show/514 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Mizell-Nelson |first=Michael |title=Po-Boy Sandwich - Stop 6 of 7 in the French Quarter Street Food tour |url=https://neworleanshistorical.org/items/show/480 |access-date=2023-07-16 |website=New Orleans Historical |language=en |archive-date=July 16, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230716050144/https://neworleanshistorical.org/items/show/480 |url-status=live }}</ref> By the mid-20th century, New Orleanians recognized that their city was no longer the leading urban area in the South. By 1950, [[Houston]], [[Dallas]], and [[Atlanta]] exceeded New Orleans in size, and in 1960 [[Miami]] eclipsed New Orleans, even as the latter's population reached its historic peak.<ref name="Lewis-2003–175" /> As with other older American cities, highway construction and suburban development drew residents from the center city to newer housing outside. The 1970 census recorded the first absolute decline in population since the city became part of the United States in 1803. The [[New Orleans metropolitan area|Greater New Orleans metropolitan area]] continued expanding in population, albeit more slowly than other major [[Sun Belt]] cities. While the [[Port of New Orleans|port]] remained one of the nation's largest, automation and [[containerization]] cost many jobs. The city's former role as banker to the South was supplanted by larger peer cities. New Orleans' economy had always been based more on trade and financial services than on manufacturing, but the city's relatively small manufacturing sector also shrank after World War II. Despite some economic development successes under the administrations of [[DeLesseps Story Morrison|DeLesseps "Chep" Morrison]] (1946–1961) and [[Victor H. Schiro|Victor "Vic" Schiro]] (1961–1970), metropolitan New Orleans' growth rate consistently lagged behind more vigorous cities. ====Civil Rights movement==== During the later years of Morrison's administration, and for the entirety of Schiro's, the city was a center of the [[Civil Rights movement]]. The [[Southern Christian Leadership Conference]] was founded in New Orleans, and lunch counter sit-ins were held in [[Canal Street, New Orleans|Canal Street]] department stores. A prominent and violent series of confrontations occurred in 1960 when the city attempted school desegregation, following the Supreme Court ruling in ''[[Brown v. Board of Education]]'' (1954). When six-year-old [[Ruby Bridges]] integrated [[William Frantz Elementary School]] in the [[Ninth Ward of New Orleans|Ninth Ward]], she was the first child of color to attend a previously all-white school in the South. Much controversy preceded the [[1956 Sugar Bowl]] at [[Tulane Stadium]], when the [[1955 Pittsburgh Panthers football team|Pitt Panthers]], with African-American fullback [[Bobby Grier (Pittsburgh Panthers)|Bobby Grier]] on the roster, met the [[1955 Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets football team|Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets]].<ref name=fcflu>{{cite news |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Cs9RAAAAIBAJ&sjid=C2wDAAAAIBAJ&pg=4796%2C5131560 |work=Pittsburgh Post-Gazette |last=Sell |first=Jack |title=Panthers defeat flu; face Ga. Tech next |date=December 30, 1955 |page=1 |access-date=December 30, 2020 |archive-date=February 25, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225072207/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Cs9RAAAAIBAJ&sjid=C2wDAAAAIBAJ&pg=4796%2C5131560 |url-status=live }}</ref> There had been controversy over whether Grier should be allowed to play due to his race, and whether Georgia Tech should even play at all due to Georgia's [[List of governors of Georgia|Governor]] [[Marvin Griffin]]'s opposition to racial integration.<ref name="Mulé">Mulé, Marty – [http://www.blackathlete.net/artman/publish/article_01392.shtml A Time For Change: Bobby Grier And The 1956 Sugar Bowl] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070610185435/http://www.blackathlete.net/artman/publish/article_01392.shtml |date=2007-06-10 }}. Black Athlete Sports Network, December 28, 2005</ref><ref>Zeise, Paul – [http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/05280/584401.stm Bobby Grier broke bowl's color line. The Panthers' Bobby Grier was the first African-American to play in Sugar Bowl] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120309113920/http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/05280/584401.stm |date=March 9, 2012 }} Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, October 07, 2005</ref><ref>Thamel, Pete – [https://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/01/sports/ncaafootball/01grier.html?ex=1293771600&en=8a6a5b2ca5956881&ei=5090&partner=rssuserland&emc=rss Grier Integrated a Game and Earned the World's Respect] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150102053133/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/01/sports/ncaafootball/01grier.html?ex=1293771600&en=8a6a5b2ca5956881&ei=5090&partner=rssuserland&emc=rss |date=January 2, 2015 }}. New York Times, January 1, 2006.</ref> After Griffin publicly sent a telegram to the state's Board Of Regents requesting Georgia Tech not to engage in racially integrated events, Georgia Tech's president [[Blake R. Van Leer]] rejected the request and threatened to resign. The game went on as planned.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fromtherumbleseat.com/2019/11/14/20914927/rearview-revisited-segregation-and-the-sugar-bowl-georgia-tech-pittsburgh-bobby-grier-1955-1956-game |publisher=Georgia Tech |title=Rearview Revisited: Segregation and the Sugar Bowl |author=Jake Grantl |date=2019-11-14 |access-date=2019-11-14 |archive-date=November 14, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191114161717/https://www.fromtherumbleseat.com/2019/11/14/20914927/rearview-revisited-segregation-and-the-sugar-bowl-georgia-tech-pittsburgh-bobby-grier-1955-1956-game |url-status=live }}</ref> The Civil Rights movement's success in gaining federal passage of the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]] and the [[Voting Rights Act of 1965]] renewed constitutional rights, including voting for blacks. Together, these resulted in the most far-reaching changes in New Orleans' 20th century history.<ref>Germany, Kent B., ''New Orleans After the Promises: Poverty, Citizenship and the Search for the Great Society'', Athens, 2007, pp. 3–5</ref> Though legal and civil equality were re-established by the end of the 1960s, a large gap in income levels and educational attainment persisted between the city's White and African American communities.<ref name="ReferenceA">Glassman, James K., "New Orleans: I have Seen the Future, and It's Houston", ''The Atlantic Monthly'', July 1978</ref> As the middle class and wealthier members of both races left the center city, its population's income level dropped, and it became proportionately more African American. From 1980, the African American majority elected primarily officials from its own community. They struggled to narrow the gap by creating conditions conducive to the economic uplift of the African American community. New Orleans became increasingly dependent on tourism as an economic mainstay during the administrations of [[Sidney Barthelemy]] (1986–1994) and [[Marc Morial]] (1994–2002). Relatively low levels of educational attainment, high rates of household poverty, and rising crime threatened the city's prosperity in the later decades of the century.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> The negative effects of these socioeconomic conditions aligned poorly with the changes in the late-20th century to the economy of the United States, which reflected a post-industrial, knowledge-based paradigm in which mental skills and education were more important to advancement than manual skills. ====Drainage and flood control==== {{See also|Drainage in New Orleans}} [[File:LPD18USSNewOrleansPassingNewOrleans.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|A view of the [[New Orleans Central Business District]], as seen from the [[Mississippi River]] {{USS|New Orleans|LPD-18}} in foreground (2007)]] In the 20th century, New Orleans' government and business leaders believed they needed to drain and develop outlying areas to provide for the city's expansion. The most ambitious development during this period was a drainage plan devised by engineer and inventor [[A. Baldwin Wood]], designed to break the surrounding swamp's stranglehold on the city's geographic expansion. Until then, urban development in New Orleans was largely limited to higher ground along the natural river levees and [[bayou]]s. Wood's pump system allowed the city to drain huge tracts of swamp and marshland and expand into low-lying areas. Over the 20th century, rapid [[subsidence]], both natural and human-induced, resulted in these newly populated areas subsiding to several feet below sea level.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Kusky, Timothy M. |title=Why is New Orleans Sinking? |publisher=Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, Saint Louis University |date=December 29, 2005 |url=http://www.eas.slu.edu/People/TMKusky/original%20files/Why%20is%20New%20Orleans%20Sinking.pdf |access-date=June 17, 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060623092455/http://www.eas.slu.edu/People/TMKusky/original%20files/Why%20is%20New%20Orleans%20Sinking.pdf |archive-date=June 23, 2006 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Larry |last=O'Hanlon |url=http://dsc.discovery.com/news/briefs/20060327/neworleans_pla.html |title=New Orleans Sits Atop Giant Landslide |publisher=Discovery Channel |date=March 31, 2006 |access-date=June 17, 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060614211349/http://dsc.discovery.com/news/briefs/20060327/neworleans_pla.html <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date=June 14, 2006}}</ref> New Orleans was vulnerable to flooding even before the city's footprint departed from the natural high ground near the Mississippi River. In the late 20th century, however, scientists and New Orleans residents gradually became aware of the city's increased vulnerability. In 1965, flooding from [[Hurricane Betsy]] killed dozens of residents, although the majority of the city remained dry. The rain-induced [[May 8th 1995 Louisiana Flood|flood of May 8, 1995]], demonstrated the weakness of the pumping system. After that event, measures were undertaken to dramatically upgrade pumping capacity. By the 1980s and 1990s, scientists observed that extensive, rapid, and ongoing [[Coastal erosion|erosion of the marshlands and swamp surrounding New Orleans]], especially that related to the [[Mississippi River–Gulf Outlet Canal]], had the unintended result of leaving the city more vulnerable than before to hurricane-induced catastrophic [[storm surge]]s.{{citation needed|date=February 2024}} ===21st century=== ====Hurricane Katrina==== [[File:Katrina 2nd landfall.jpg|thumb|right|[[Hurricane Katrina]] at its New Orleans landfall]] {{See also|Effects of Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans|Drainage in New Orleans}} New Orleans was catastrophically affected by what Raymond B. Seed called "the worst engineering disaster in the world since [[Chernobyl disaster|Chernobyl]]", when [[2005 levee failures in Greater New Orleans|the federal levee system failed]] during [[Hurricane Katrina]] on August 29, 2005.<ref name="Baker">[http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/2006/2/2006_2_23.shtml Kevin Baker] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091005062625/http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/2006/2/2006_2_23.shtml |date=October 5, 2009 }} "The Future of New Orleans", ''American Heritage'', April/May 2006.</ref> By the time the hurricane approached the city on August 29, 2005, most residents had evacuated. As the hurricane passed through the [[Gulf Coast of the United States|Gulf Coast region]], the city's [[Flood Control Act of 1965|federal flood protection]] system failed, resulting in the worst [[civil engineering]] disaster in American history at the time.<ref>{{cite news |first=Bob |last=Marshall |url=http://www.nola.com/news/t-p/frontpage/index.ssf?/base/news-4/1133336859287360.xml |title=17th Street Canal levee was doomed |work=The Times-Picayune |date=November 30, 2005 |access-date=March 12, 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060907073947/http://www.nola.com/news/t-p/frontpage/index.ssf?%2Fbase%2Fnews-4%2F1133336859287360.xml |archive-date=September 7, 2006}}</ref> Floodwalls and [[levee]]s constructed by the [[United States Army Corps of Engineers]] failed below design specifications and 80% of the city flooded. Tens of thousands of residents who had remained were rescued or otherwise made their way to shelters of last resort at the [[Mercedes-Benz Superdome|Louisiana Superdome]] or the [[New Orleans Morial Convention Center]]. More than 1,500 people were recorded as having died in Louisiana, most in New Orleans, while others remain unaccounted for.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nola.com/news/t-p/frontpage/index.ssf?/base/news-5/1148020620117480.xml&coll=1 |title=Deaths of evacuees push toll to 1,577 |publisher=nola.com |access-date=March 22, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930184520/http://www.nola.com/news/t-p/frontpage/index.ssf?%2Fbase%2Fnews-5%2F1148020620117480.xml&coll=1 |archive-date=September 30, 2007}}</ref><ref name=184_Katrina1>{{cite web |title=After Katrina: 184 Infantry Soldiers to the Rescue |url=http://spectrummagazine.net/pdfs/2005_10_SpectrumArchive.pdf |publisher=The Spectrum, October 2005 |access-date=December 19, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131226042813/http://spectrummagazine.net/pdfs/2005_10_SpectrumArchive.pdf |archive-date=December 26, 2013 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all}}</ref> Before Hurricane Katrina, the city called for the first mandatory evacuation in its history, to be followed by another mandatory evacuation three years later with [[Hurricane Gustav]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.foxnews.com/story/nagin-orders-mandatory-evacuation-of-new-orleans-as-gustav-approaches |title=Nagin Orders Mandatory Evacuation of New Orleans as Gustav Approaches |work=Fox news |date=August 30, 2008|access-date=February 20, 2024}}</ref> ====Hurricane Rita==== {{Main|Hurricane Rita}} The city was declared off-limits to residents while efforts to clean up after [[Hurricane Katrina]] began. The approach of [[Hurricane Rita]] in September 2005 caused repopulation efforts to be postponed,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.cnn.com/2005/US/09/15/katrina.impact/index.html |title=Mayor: Parts of New Orleans to reopen |date=September 15, 2005 |publisher=CNN.com |access-date=May 2, 2006 |archive-date=June 18, 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060618093145/http://www.cnn.com/2005/US/09/15/katrina.impact/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and the [[Lower Ninth Ward]] was reflooded by Rita's storm surge.<ref name="184_Katrina1"/> ====Post-disaster recovery==== {{Main|Reconstruction of New Orleans}} [[File:Navy-FloodedNewOrleans.jpg|right|thumb|An aerial view from a United States Navy helicopter showing floodwaters around the Louisiana Superdome (stadium) and surrounding area (2005)]] Because of the scale of damage, many people resettled permanently outside the area. Federal, state, and local efforts supported recovery and rebuilding in severely damaged neighborhoods. The U.S. Census Bureau in July 2006 estimated the population to be 223,000; a subsequent study estimated that 32,000 additional residents had moved to the city as of March 2007, bringing the estimated population to 255,000, approximately 56% of the pre-Katrina population level. Another estimate, based on utility usage from July 2007, estimated the population to be approximately 274,000 or 60% of the pre-Katrina population. These estimates are somewhat smaller to a third estimate, based on mail delivery records, from the Greater New Orleans Community Data Center in June 2007, which indicated that the city had regained approximately two-thirds of its pre-Katrina population.<ref>[http://www.nola.com/news/t-p/frontpage/index.ssf?/base/news-8/1186642536113410.xml&coll=1 "N.O. head count gains steam"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090701223143/http://www.nola.com/news/t-p/frontpage/index.ssf?%2Fbase%2Fnews-8%2F1186642536113410.xml&coll=1 |date=July 1, 2009 }}, ''The Times-Picayune'', August 9, 2007. Retrieved August 14, 2007.</ref> In 2008, the U.S. Census Bureau revised its population estimate for the city upward, to 336,644.<ref name="New Orleans 2010">"New Orleans' population estimate was low by 25,000, Census says", ''The Times-Picayune'', January 8, 2010.</ref> Most recently, by July 2015, the population was back up to 386,617—80% of what it was in 2000.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.datacenterresearch.org/data-resources/katrina/facts-for-impact/ |title=Facts for Features: Katrina Impact {{!}} The Data Center |website=www.datacenterresearch.org |language=en |access-date=November 9, 2018 |archive-date=August 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230830005056/https://www.datacenterresearch.org/data-resources/katrina/facts-for-impact/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Several major tourist events and other forms of revenue for the city have returned. Large conventions returned.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2006/06/21/ap/business/mainD8ICG2NG0.shtml |title=New Orleans Braces for Convention Comeback |website=[[CBS News]] |access-date=March 23, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080520104030/http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2006/06/21/ap/business/mainD8ICG2NG0.shtml <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date=May 20, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.neworleanscvb.com/articles/index.cfm/action/articles/typeID/1 |title=New Orleans Convention and Visitors Bureau |access-date=March 23, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080403040320/http://www.neworleanscvb.com/articles/index.cfm/action/articles/typeID/1 |archive-date=April 3, 2008}}</ref> College bowl games returned for the [[2006–07 NCAA football bowl games|2006–2007 season]]. The [[New Orleans Saints]] returned that season. The [[New Orleans Hornets]] (now named the Pelicans) returned to the city for the [[2007–08 New Orleans Hornets season|2007–2008 season]]. New Orleans hosted the [[2008 NBA All-Star Game]] in addition to [[Super Bowl XLVII]]. Major annual events such as [[New Orleans Mardi Gras|Mardi Gras]], [[Voodoo Experience]], and the [[New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festival|Jazz & Heritage Festival]] were never displaced or canceled. A new annual festival, "The Running of the Bulls New Orleans", was created in 2007.<ref>[http://www.neworleans.com/festivals/other-festivals/11386-0710-running-of-the-bulls-in-new-orleans.html Nola.com] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100622032747/http://www.neworleans.com/festivals/other-festivals/11386-0710-running-of-the-bulls-in-new-orleans.html |date=June 22, 2010 }}, New Orleans</ref> ==== Hurricane Ida ==== {{Main|Hurricane Ida}} On August 29, 2021, [[Hurricane Ida]], a category 4 hurricane, made landfall near [[Port Fourchon, Louisiana|Port Fourchon]], where the [[Hurricane Ida tornado outbreak]] caused damage.<ref>{{cite news|last=Ghose|first=Tia|url=https://www.livescience.com/hurricane-ida-landfall-2021.html |title='Extremely dangerous' Hurricane Ida makes landfall in Louisiana with 150 mph winds |work=LiveScience |date=August 29, 2021|access-date=February 20, 2024}}</ref> Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. 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