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Do not fill this in! ==Reign (AD 54–68)== The main ancient Roman literary sources for Nero's reign are [[Tacitus]], [[Suetonius]] and [[Cassius Dio]].{{sfn|Griffin|2002|p=37}} They found Nero's construction projects overly extravagant and claim that their cost left Italy "thoroughly exhausted by contributions of money" with "the provinces ruined".<ref>[[Suetonius]], "Life of Nero", [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html#31 § 31].</ref><ref>Tacitus, ''[[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#45 XV.45|Annals]]'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#45 XV.45|XV.45]].</ref> Modern historians note that the period was riddled with deflation and that Nero intended his spending on public-work and charities to ease economic troubles.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Thornton |first=Mary Elizabeth Kelly |title=Nero's New Deal |journal=Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association |volume=102 |page=629 |year=1971 |jstor=2935958 |doi=10.2307/2935958}}</ref> ===Early reign=== [[File:Bust of Roman emperor as pharaoh-E 27418-IMG 3389-gradient.jpg|thumb|left|Bust of Nero as pharaoh]] Nero became emperor in AD 54, aged 16. His tutor, Seneca, prepared Nero's first speech before the Senate. During this speech, Nero spoke about "eliminating the ills of the previous regime".{{sfn|Malitz|2005|p=16}} [[H. H. Scullard]] writes that "he promised to follow the Augustan model in his principate, to end all secret trials ''intra cubiculum'', to have done with the corruption of court favorites and freedmen, and above all to respect the privileges of the Senate and individual Senators."{{sfn|Scullard|2011|p=257}} His respect for Senatorial autonomy, which distinguished him from Caligula and Claudius, was generally well received by the [[Roman Senate]].{{sfn|Malitz|2005|p=18}} Scullard writes that Nero's mother, Agrippina, "meant to rule through her son". Agrippina murdered her political rivals: Domitia Lepida the Younger, the aunt that Nero had lived with during Agrippina's exile; [[Marcus Junius Silanus (consul 46)|Marcus Junius Silanus]], a great-grandson of Augustus; and [[Tiberius Claudius Narcissus|Narcissus]].{{sfn|Scullard|2011|p=257}} One of the earliest coins that Nero issued during his reign shows Agrippina on the coin's [[obverse]] side; usually, this would be reserved for a portrait of the emperor. The Senate also allowed Agrippina two [[lictors]] during public appearances, an honor that was customarily bestowed upon only magistrates and the [[Vestalis Maxima]].{{sfn|Malitz|2005|p=16}} In AD 55, Nero removed Agrippina's ally [[Pallas (freedman)|Marcus Antonius Pallas]] from his position in the treasury. Shotter writes the following about Agrippina's deteriorating relationship with Nero: "What Seneca and Burrus probably saw as relatively harmless in Nero—his cultural pursuits and his affair with the slave girl [[Claudia Acte]]—were to her signs of her son's dangerous emancipation of himself from her influence." Britannicus was poisoned after Agrippina threatened to side with him.{{sfn|Shotter|2012|p=12}} Nero, who was having an affair with Acte,{{efn-lr|Sources describe Acte as a slave girl (Shotter) and a freedwoman (Champlin and Scullard).}} exiled Agrippina from the palace when she began to cultivate a relationship with his wife Octavia.{{sfn|Scullard|2011|p=257}} [[File:Nerón y Séneca-Barrón.png|thumb|Emperor Nero being instructed by [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]], work by Spanish sculptor [[Eduardo Barrón González|Eduardo Barrón]]]] Jürgen Malitz writes that ancient sources do not provide any clear evidence to evaluate the extent of Nero's personal involvement in politics during the first years of his reign. He describes the policies that are explicitly attributed to Nero as "well-meant but incompetent notions" like Nero's failed initiative to abolish all taxes in AD 58. Scholars generally credit Nero's advisors Burrus and Seneca with the administrative successes of these years. Malitz writes that in later years, Nero panicked when he had to make decisions on his own during times of crisis.{{sfn|Malitz|2005|p=19}} Nevertheless, his early administration ruled to great acclaim. A generation later those years were seen in retrospect as an exemplar of good and moderate government and described as ''Quinquennium Neronis'' by [[Trajan]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Anderson |first1=J. G. C. |last2=Haverfield |first2=F. |date=1911 |title=Trajan on the Quinquennium Neronis |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/295862 |journal=The Journal of Roman Studies |volume=1 |pages=173–179 |doi=10.2307/295862 |jstor=295862 |s2cid=163727450 |issn=0075-4358}}</ref>{{sfn|Malitz|2005|p=17}} Especially well received were fiscal reforms which among others put tax collectors under more strict control by establishing local offices to supervise their activities.<ref>Günther, Sven (2014) '[https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/43505/chapter/364128738?login=false Taxation in the Greco-Roman World: The Roman Principate]', ''Oxford Handbook Topics in Classical Studies''.</ref> After the affair of [[Lucius Pedanius Secundus]], who was murdered by a desperate slave, Nero allowed slaves to file complaints about their treatment to the authorities.<ref name=britannica>{{cite web |title=Nero {{!}} Roman emperor |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Nero-Roman-emperor |url-status=live |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=2 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170801180237/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Nero-Roman-emperor |archive-date=1 August 2017}}</ref> ===Residences=== Outside of Rome, Nero had several villas or palaces built, the ruins of which can still be seen today. These included the Villa of Nero at Antium, his place of birth, where he razed the villa on the site to rebuild it on a more massive and imperial scale and including a theatre. At [[Subiaco, Lazio]],<ref>Nero's villa https://www.tibursuperbum.it/eng/escursioni/subiaco/VillaNerone.htm</ref> near Rome he had 3 artificial lakes built, with waterfalls, bridges and walkways for the luxurious villa. He stayed at the [[Villa of Nero]] at [[Olympia, Greece]], during his participation at the [[Olympic Games]] of AD 67. ===Matricide=== [[Image:Nero and Poppaea Sabina.jpg|thumb|Coin of Nero and [[Poppaea Sabina]] Billon tetradrachm of Alexandria, Egypt, 25 mm, 12.51 gr. Obverse: radiate head right; ΝΕΡΩ. ΚΛΑΥ. ΚΑΙΣ. ΣΕΒ. ΓΕΡ. ΑΥ. Reverse: draped bust of Poppaea right; ΠΟΠΠΑΙΑ ΣΕΒΑΣΤΗ. Year LI = 10 = 63–64.]]''The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome'' cautiously notes that Nero's reasons for killing his mother in AD 59 are "not fully understood".{{sfn|Barrett|2010}} According to [[Tacitus]], the source of conflict between Nero and his mother was Nero's affair with [[Poppaea Sabina]]. In ''[[Histories (Tacitus)|Histories]]'' Tacitus writes that the affair began while Poppaea was still married to [[Rufrius Crispinus]], but in his later work ''[[Annals (Tacitus)|Annals]]'' Tacitus says Poppaea was married to [[Otho]] when the affair began.{{sfn|Barrett|Fantham|Yardley|2016|p=214}} In ''Annals'' Tacitus writes that Agrippina opposed Nero's affair with Poppaea because of her affection for his wife [[Claudia Octavia|Octavia]]. [[Anthony A. Barrett]] writes that Tacitus' account in ''Annals'' "suggests that Poppaea's challenge drove [Nero] over the brink".{{sfn|Barrett|Fantham|Yardley|2016|p=215}} A number of modern historians have noted that Agrippina's death would not have offered much advantage for Poppaea, as Nero did not marry Poppaea until AD 62.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dawson |first=Alexis |date=1969 |title=Whatever Happened to Lady Agrippina? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3296108 |journal=The Classical Journal |volume=64 |issue=6 |pages=253–267 |jstor=3296108 |issn=0009-8353}}</ref>{{sfn|Barrett|Fantham|Yardley|2016|p=215}} Barrett writes that Poppaea seems to serve as a "literary device, utilized [by Tacitus] because [he] could see no plausible explanation for Nero's conduct and also incidentally [served] to show that Nero, like Claudius, had fallen under the malign influence of a woman."{{sfn|Barrett|Fantham|Yardley|2016|p=215}} According to [[Suetonius]], Nero had his former freedman [[Anicetus (freedman)|Anicetus]] arrange a shipwreck; Agrippina survived the wreck, swam ashore and was executed by Anicetus, who reported her death as a suicide.{{sfn|Barrett|2010}}{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html#34 34]}} ===Decline=== Modern scholars believe that Nero's reign had been going well in the years before Agrippina's death. For example, Nero promoted the exploration of the [[Nile river]] sources with a [[Nero exploration of Nile river|successful expedition]].{{sfn|Buckley|Dinter|2013|p=364}} After Agrippina's exile, Burrus and Seneca were responsible for the administration of the Empire.{{sfn|Scullard|2011|p=258}} However, Nero's "conduct became far more egregious" after his mother's death.{{sfn|Barrett|2010}} [[Miriam T. Griffin]]s suggests that Nero's decline began as early as AD 55 with the murder of his stepbrother Britannicus, but also notes that "Nero lost all sense of right and wrong and listened to flattery with total credulity" after Agrippina's death. Griffin points out that Tacitus "makes explicit the significance of Agrippina's removal for Nero's conduct".{{sfn|Griffin|2002|p=84}}<ref>[[Tacitus]], ''Annals'', [[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 14#13|XIV.13]]</ref> He began to build a new palace, the [[Domus Transitoria]], from about AD 60.{{sfn|Buckley|Dinter|2013|loc=Chapter 19: Buildings of an emperor - How Nero transformed Rome}} It was intended to connect all of the imperial estates that had been acquired in various ways, with the [[Palatine]] including the [[Gardens of Maecenas]], [[Horti Lamiani]], [[Horti Lolliani]], etc.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Italy/Lazio/Roma/Rome/_Texts/PLATOP*/Domus_Transitoria.html|title = LacusCurtius • Domus Transitoria (Platner & Ashby, 1929)}}</ref>{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=31.1}} In AD 62, Nero's adviser [[Sextus Afranius Burrus|Burrus]] died.{{sfn|Barrett|2010}} That same year, Nero called for the first treason trial of his reign (''maiestas'' trial) against Antistius Sosianus.<ref>[[Tacitus]], ''Annals'' [[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 14#48|XIV.48]].</ref>{{sfn|Griffin|2002|p=53}} He also executed his rivals [[Faustus Cornelius Sulla Felix|Cornelius Sulla]] and [[Rubellius Plautus]].{{sfn|Malitz|2005|p=x}} Jürgen Malitz considers this to be a turning point in Nero's relationship with the [[Roman Senate]]. Malitz writes that "Nero abandoned the restraint he had previously shown because he believed a course supporting the Senate promised to be less and less profitable."{{sfn|Malitz|2005|p=22}} After Burrus' death, Nero appointed two new Praetorian prefects: [[Faenius Rufus]] and [[Ofonius Tigellinus]]. Politically isolated, Seneca was forced to retire.{{sfn|Scullard|2011|p=26}} According to Tacitus, Nero divorced Octavia on grounds of infertility, and banished her.<ref name="annals-xiv-60">[[Tacitus]], ''Annals'' [[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 14#60|XIV.60]].</ref> After public protests over Octavia's exile, Nero accused her of adultery with Anicetus, and she was executed.<ref>[[Tacitus]], ''Annals'' [[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 14#64|XIV.64]].</ref>{{sfn|Griffin|2002|p=99}} In AD 64 during the [[Saturnalia]], Nero married [[Pythagoras (freedman)|Pythagoras]], a [[freedman]].{{sfn|Tacitus|loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/e/roman/texts/tacitus/annals/15b*.html#37 15.37]}}{{sfn|Cassius Dio|loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/62*.html 13, 28]}}{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html#29 29] calls him "Doryphorus"}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.umich.edu/~classics/news/newsletter/winter2004/weddings.html | title=Roman Same-Sex Weddings from the Legal Perspective |author=Frier, Bruce W. |publisher=University of Michigan |work=Classical Studies Newsletter, Volume X |year=2004 |access-date=24 February 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111230041201/http://www.umich.edu/~classics/news/newsletter/winter2004/weddings.html |archive-date=30 December 2011 }}</ref><ref name="Champlin146">[[#Champlin|Champlin]], p. 146</ref> ===Great Fire of Rome=== {{Main|Great Fire of Rome}} [[File:Robert, Hubert - Incendie à Rome -.jpg|thumb|''The Fire of Rome'' by [[Hubert Robert]] (1785)]] The Great Fire of Rome began on the night of 18 to 19 July 64, probably in one of the merchant shops on the slope of the [[Aventine Hill|Aventine]] overlooking the [[Circus Maximus]], or in the wooden outer seating of the Circus itself. Rome had always been vulnerable to fires, and this one was fanned to catastrophic proportions by the winds.<ref name=champlin122>[[#Champlin|Champlin]], p. 122</ref><ref name="tacitus-annals-xv-38">[[Tacitus]], ''Annals'', [[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#38|XV.38]]</ref> Tacitus, Cassius Dio, and modern archaeology describe the destruction of mansions, ordinary residences, public buildings, and temples on the Aventine, Palatine, and Caelian hills.<ref name=champlin122/><ref name=champlin>[[#Champlin|Champlin]], p. 125</ref> The fire burned for over seven days before subsiding; it then started again and burned for three more. It destroyed three of Rome's 14 districts and severely damaged seven more.{{sfn|Scullard|2011|p=260}}<ref name="annals-xv-40">[[Tacitus]], ''[[Tacitus]]'', [[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#40|XV.40]]</ref> Some Romans thought the fire an accident, as the merchant shops were timber-framed and sold flammable goods, and the outer seating stands of the Circus were timber-built. Others claimed it was arson committed on Nero's behalf. The accounts by [[Pliny the Elder]], Suetonius, and Cassius Dio suggest several possible reasons for Nero's alleged arson, including his creation of a real-life backdrop to a theatrical performance about the burning of Troy. Suetonius wrote that Nero started the fire to clear the site for his planned palatial [[Domus Aurea|Golden House]].<ref>[[#Champlin|Champlin]], p. 182</ref> This would include lush artificial landscapes and a 30-meter-tall statue of himself, the [[Colossus of Nero]], sited more or less where the [[Colosseum]] would eventually be built.<ref>Roth, Leland M. (1993). ''Understanding Architecture: Its Elements, History and Meaning''. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, pp. 227–28. {{ISBN|0-06-430158-3}}.</ref><ref>Ball, Larry F. (2003). ''The Domus Aurea and the Roman architectural revolution''. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-82251-3}}.</ref><ref>Warden reduces its size to under {{convert|100|acre|km2}}. {{cite journal|author=Warden, P.G.|title=The Domus Aurea Reconsidered|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/989644|journal= Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians |volume=40 |issue=4|year=1981|pages= 271–78|doi=10.2307/989644|jstor=989644}}</ref> Suetonius and Cassius Dio claim that Nero sang the "[[Iliupersis|Sack of Ilium]]" in stage costume while the city burned.<ref>[[#Champlin|Champlin]], p. 77</ref>{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html#38 38]}}{{sfn|Cassius Dio|loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/62*.html#16 62.16]}} The popular legend that Nero played the [[fiddle]] while Rome burned "is at least partly a literary construct of [[Flavian dynasty|Flavian]] propaganda ... which looked askance on the abortive Neronian attempt to rewrite Augustan models of rule".{{sfn|Buckley|Dinter|2013|p=2}} Tacitus suspends judgment on Nero's responsibility for the fire; he found that Nero was in Antium when the fire started, and returned to Rome to organize a relief effort, providing for the removal of bodies and debris, which he paid for from his own funds.<ref name="annals-xv-39">[[Tacitus]], ''Annals'', [[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#39|XV.39]]</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Walsh|first=Joseph J.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RX-tDwAAQBAJ&q=nero+search+debris+rome+fire+victims&pg=PT57|title=The Great Fire of Rome: Life and Death in the Ancient City|date=1 October 2019|publisher=JHU Press|isbn=978-1-4214-3372-1|language=en}}</ref> After the fire, Nero opened his palaces to provide shelter for the homeless, and arranged for food supplies to be delivered in order to prevent starvation among the survivors.<ref name="annals-xv-39"/> Tacitus writes that to remove suspicion from himself, Nero accused Christians of starting the fire.<ref>[[#Champlin|Champlin]], p. 121</ref> According to this account, many Christians were arrested and brutally executed by "being thrown to the beasts, crucified, and being burned alive".<ref>[[#Champlin|Champlin]], pp. 121–22</ref> Tacitus asserts that in his imposition of such ferocious punishments, Nero was not motivated by a sense of justice, but by a penchant for personal cruelty.<ref name="annals-xv-44">[[Tacitus]], ''[[Annals (Tacitus)|Annals]]''. XV.44.</ref> Houses built after the fire were spaced out, built in brick, and faced by [[porticos]] on wide roads.<ref name="annals-xv-43">[[Tacitus]], ''Annals'', [[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#43|XV.43]]</ref> Nero also built himself a new palace complex known as the [[Domus Aurea]] in an area cleared by the fire. The cost to rebuild Rome was immense, requiring funds the state treasury did not have. To find the necessary funds for the reconstruction, Nero's government increased taxation.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.historyextra.com/period/roman/emperor-nero-facts-biography-tyrant-crimes-accomplishments/ |title=Emperor Nero: the tyrant of Rome |publisher=BBC History Magazine and BBC History Revealed |access-date=3 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506004906/https://www.historyextra.com/period/roman/emperor-nero-facts-biography-tyrant-crimes-accomplishments/ |archive-date=6 May 2021 }}</ref> Particularly heavy [[tributes]] were imposed on the provinces of the empire.<ref>[[Tacitus]], ''Annals'' [[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#45|XV.45]].</ref> To meet at least a portion of the costs, Nero devalued the [[Roman currency]], increasing inflationary pressure for the first time in the Empire's history.{{efn-lr|Nero or his moneyers reduced the weight of the [[denarius]] from 84 per [[Roman pound]] to 96 (3.80 grams to 3.30 grams). He also reduced the silver purity from 99.5% to 93.5%—the silver weight dropping from 3.80 grams to 2.97 grams. He also reduced the weight of the [[aureus]] from 40 per Roman pound to 45 (7.9 grams to 7.2 grams). [[Tulane University]] hand-out, [https://web.archive.org/web/20010210220413/http://www.tulane.edu/~august/handouts/601cprin.htm archived]. {{better source needed|date=October 2023}}}} ===Later years=== In AD 65, [[Gaius Calpurnius Piso (conspirator)|Gaius Calpurnius Piso]], a Roman statesman, organized a [[Pisonian conspiracy|conspiracy against Nero]] with the help of Subrius Flavus and Sulpicius Asper, a tribune and a centurion of the Praetorian Guard.<ref>[[Tacitus]], ''Annals'' [[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#49|XV.49]].</ref> According to Tacitus, many conspirators wished to "rescue the state" from the emperor and restore the [[Roman Republic|Republic]].<ref>[[Tacitus]], ''Annals'' [[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#50|XV.50]].</ref> The freedman Milichus discovered the conspiracy and reported it to Nero's secretary, [[Epaphroditus (freedman of Nero)|Epaphroditus]].<ref>[[Tacitus]], ''Annals'' [[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#55|XV.55]].</ref> As a result, the conspiracy failed and its members were executed, including [[Marcus Annaeus Lucanus|Lucan]], the poet.<ref>[[Tacitus]], ''Annals'' [[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#70|XV.70]].</ref> Nero's previous advisor [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]] was accused by Natalis; he denied the charges but was still ordered to commit suicide, as by this point he had fallen out of favor with Nero.<ref>[[Tacitus]], ''Annals'' [[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#60|XV.60–62]].</ref> Nero was said to have kicked Poppaea to death in AD 65, before she could give birth to his second child. Modern historians, noting the probable biases of Suetonius, Tacitus, and Cassius Dio, and the likely absence of eyewitnesses to such an event, propose that Poppaea may have died after miscarriage or in childbirth.<ref>Rudich, Vasily (1993) ''Political Dissidence Under Nero''. Psychology Press. pp. 135–36. {{ISBN|9780415069519}}</ref> Nero went into deep mourning; Poppaea was given a sumptuous [[state funeral]] and [[Imperial cult (ancient Rome)#Divus, deus and the numen|divine honors]], and was promised a temple for her cult. A year's importation of incense was burned at the funeral. Her body was not cremated, as would have been strictly customary, but embalmed after the Egyptian manner and entombed;<!--Please don't link to [[Mausoleum of Augustus]] or [[Tomb of the Julii]]--> it is not known where.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Counts, Derek B.|title=Regum Externorum Consuetudine: The Nature and Function of Embalming in Rome|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25011039|journal=Classical Antiquity|volume= 15 |issue= 2|date=1996|pages= 189–90|quote= p. 193, note 18 "We should not consider it an insult that Poppaea was not buried in the Mausoleum of Augustus, as were other members of the imperial family until the time of Nerva." 196 (note 37, citing Pliny the elder, ''Natural History'', 12.83).|doi=10.2307/25011039|jstor=25011039}}</ref> In AD 67, Nero married [[Sporus]], a young boy who is said to have greatly resembled Poppaea. Nero had him castrated and married him with all the usual ceremonies, including a dowry and a bridal veil. It is believed that he did this out of regret for his killing of Poppaea.{{sfn|Cassius Dio|loc=62.28}}<ref>{{Citation|last=Suetonius|editor1-first=Robert A|editor1-last=Kaster|title=Nero|work=Studies on the Text of Suetonius' 'De Vita Caesarum'|year=2016|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/oseo/instance.00233087|isbn=978-0-19-875847-1}}</ref> ===Revolt of Vindex and Galba and Nero's death=== In March 68, [[Vindex|Gaius Julius Vindex]], the governor of [[Gallia Lugdunensis]], rebelled against Nero's tax policies.<ref name="Cassius-22">Cassius Dio, [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/63*.html#22 63.22].</ref><ref>Donahue, John, [http://www.roman-emperors.org/galba.htm "Galba (68–69 A.D.)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080911211039/http://www.roman-emperors.org/galba.htm |date=11 September 2008 }} at ''De Imperatoribus Romanis''.</ref> [[Lucius Virginius Rufus|Lucius Verginius Rufus]], the governor of [[Germania Superior]], was ordered to put down Vindex's rebellion.<ref name="cassiusdio-lxiii-24">[[Cassius Dio]], [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/63*.html#24 63.24].</ref> In an attempt to gain support from outside his own province, Vindex called upon [[Galba|Servius Sulpicius Galba]], the governor of [[Hispania Tarraconensis]], to join the rebellion and to declare himself emperor in opposition to Nero.<ref name="Plutarch-galba-5">[[Plutarch]], [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Galba*.html#5 Galba 5].</ref> [[Image:Nero Palatino Inv618.jpg|thumb|left|upright|A marble bust of Nero, Antiquarium of the [[Palatine]].]] At the [[Battle of Vesontio (68)|Battle of Vesontio]] in May 68, Verginius' forces easily defeated those of Vindex, and the latter committed suicide.<ref name="cassiusdio-lxiii-24"/> However, after defeating the rebel, Verginius' legions attempted to proclaim their own commander as Emperor. Verginius refused to act against Nero, but the discontent of the legions of Germania and the continued opposition of Galba in Hispania did not bode well for him.<ref>[[Cassius Dio]], [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/63*.html#25 63.25].</ref> While Nero had retained some control of the situation, support for Galba increased despite his being officially declared a "public enemy".<ref name="Plutarch-galba-5"/> The prefect of the [[Praetorian Guard]], [[Gaius Nymphidius Sabinus]], also abandoned his allegiance to the Emperor and came out in support of Galba.{{sfn|Plutarch|loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Galba*.html#8 Galba 8]}} In response, Nero fled Rome with the intention of going to the port of [[Ostia Antica|Ostia]] and, from there, to take a fleet to one of the still-loyal eastern provinces. According to Suetonius, Nero abandoned the idea when some army officers openly refused to obey his commands, responding with a line from [[Virgil]]'s ''[[Aeneid]]'': "Is it so dreadful a thing then to die?" Nero then toyed with the idea of fleeing to [[Parthian Empire|Parthia]], throwing himself upon the mercy of Galba, or appealing to the people and begging them to pardon him for his past offences "and if he could not soften their hearts, to entreat them at least to allow him the [[Egypt (Roman province)|prefecture of Egypt]]". Suetonius reports that the text of this speech was later found in Nero's writing desk, but that he dared not give it from fear of being torn to pieces before he could reach the Forum.{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=47}} Nero returned to Rome and spent the evening in the palace. After sleeping, he awoke at about midnight to find the palace guard had left. Dispatching messages to his friends' palace chambers for them to come, he received no answers. Upon going to their chambers personally, he found them all abandoned. When he called for a [[gladiator]] or anyone else adept with a sword to kill him, no one appeared. He cried, "Have I neither friend nor foe?" and ran out as if to throw himself into the [[Tiber]].{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=47}} Returning, Nero sought a place where he could hide and collect his thoughts. An imperial freedman, [[Phaon (freedman)|Phaon]], offered his villa, located {{convert|4|mi|abbr=on}} outside the city. Travelling in disguise, Nero and four loyal [[freedman|freedmen]], [[Epaphroditus (freedman of Nero)|Epaphroditus]], [[Phaon (freedman)|Phaon]], [[Neophytus (freedman)|Neophytus]], and [[Sporus]], reached the villa, where Nero ordered them to dig a grave for him.<ref>[[Aurelius Victor]], ''[[Epitome de Caesaribus]] 5''</ref> At this time, Nero learned that the Senate had declared him a public enemy.{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=48–49}} Nero prepared himself for [[forced suicide|suicide]], pacing up and down muttering ''Qualis artifex pereo'' ("What an artist the world is losing!"). Losing his nerve, he begged one of his companions to set an example by killing himself first. At last, the sound of approaching horsemen drove Nero to face the end. However, he still could not bring himself to take his own life, but instead forced his private secretary, Epaphroditus, to perform the task.{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=49}}[[File:A select collection of views and ruins in Rome and its vicinity - recently executed from drawings made upon the spot (1815) (14592716650).jpg|thumb|upright|An 1815 illustration of the alleged tomb of Nero; actually tomb of proconsul [[Gaius Vibius Marianus]].]] When one of the horsemen entered and saw that Nero was dying, he attempted to stop the bleeding, but efforts to save Nero's life were unsuccessful. Nero's final words were "Too late! This is fidelity!".{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=49}} He died on 9 June 68,{{efn-lr|[[Cassius Dio]] [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/66*.html 66.4]: "from the death of Nero to the beginning of Vespasian's rule a year and twenty-two days elapsed". Vespasian's reign officially began on 1 July ([[Suetonius]], [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Vespasian*.html#6 ''Vespasian'' 6]), which places the death on 9 June. Furthermore, [[Epiphanius of Salamis|Epiphanius]]' ''[[On Weights and Measures]]'' ([https://www.tertullian.org/fathers/epiphanius_weights_03_text.htm III]) gives a reign length of "thirteen years and seven months and twenty-seven days". [[Jerome]] ([https://www.tertullian.org/fathers/jerome_chronicle_03_part2.htm 2070]) gives "13 years, 7 months and 28 days" (using [[inclusive counting]]).}} the anniversary of the death of his first wife, [[Claudia Octavia]], and was buried in the Mausoleum of the Domitii Ahenobarbi, in what is now the [[Villa Borghese]] ([[Pincian Hill]]) area of Rome.{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=49}} According to [[Sulpicius Severus]], it is unclear whether Nero took his own life.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf211/npnf211.ii.vi.ii.xxix.html#fnf_ii.vi.ii.xxix-p2.1|title=Philip Schaff: NPNF-211. Sulpitius Severus, Vincent of Lerins, John Cassian – Christian Classics Ethereal Library|website=ccel.org|access-date=24 November 2019}}</ref> With his death, the [[Julio-Claudian dynasty]] ended.<ref name=agrippina>{{cite book|last = Barrett| first = A. A| title = Agrippina: sister of Caligula, wife of Claudius, mother of Nero| location = London| date = 1996|isbn=978-0713468540|publisher=Routledge}}</ref>{{rp|19}} Chaos would ensue in the [[year of the Four Emperors]].<ref name="tacitus-histories-I.2">Tacitus, ''Histories'' [[s:The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 1#2|I.2]].</ref> ===After Nero=== {{see also|Nero Redivivus legend|Pseudo-Nero}} [[Image:Nero-nancy.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Apotheosis]] of Nero, c. after 68. Artwork portraying Nero rising to divine status after his death.]] According to Suetonius and Cassius Dio, the people of Rome celebrated the death of Nero.{{sfn|Cassius Dio|loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/63*.html 63]}}{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=57}} Tacitus, though, describes a more complicated political environment. Tacitus mentions that Nero's death was welcomed by senators, nobility, and the upper class.<ref name="histories-i-4">Tacitus, ''Histories'' [[s:The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 1#4|I.4]].</ref> The lower class, slaves, frequenters of the arena and the theater, and "those who were supported by the famous excesses of Nero", on the other hand, were upset with the news.<ref name="histories-i-4"/> Members of the military were said to have mixed feelings, as they had allegiance to Nero but had been bribed to overthrow him.<ref name="tacitus-histories-I.5">Tacitus, ''Histories'' [[s:The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 1#5|I.5]].</ref> Eastern sources, namely [[Philostratus]] and [[Apollonius of Tyana]], mention that Nero's death was mourned as he "restored the liberties of [[Roman Greece|Hellas]] with a wisdom and moderation quite alien to his character", and that he "held our liberties in his hand and respected them".{{sfn|Philostratus|loc=[https://www.livius.org/sources/content/philostratus-life-of-apollonius/philostratus-life-of-apollonius-5.41-43/ 5.41]}} Modern scholarship generally holds that, while the Senate and more well-off individuals welcomed Nero's death, the general populace was "loyal to the end and beyond, for Otho and Vitellius both thought it worthwhile to appeal to their [[nostalgia]]".{{sfn|Griffin|2002|p=186}} Nero's name was erased from some monuments, in what Edward Champlin regards as an "outburst of private zeal".<ref>[[#Champlin|Champlin]], p. 29.</ref> Many portraits of Nero were reworked to represent other figures; according to Eric R. Varner, over 50 such images survive.<ref name="pollini">{{Cite journal |last=Pollini |first=John |date=2006 |title=Review of Mutilation and Transformation: Damnatio Memoriae and Roman Imperial Portraiture |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25067270 |journal=The Art Bulletin |volume=88 |issue=3 |pages=590–597 |jstor=25067270 |issn=0004-3079}}</ref> This reworking of images is often explained as part of the way in which the memory of disgraced emperors was condemned posthumously,<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.11141/ia.42.2|title = Sanctioning Memory: Changing Identity – Using 3D laser scanning to identify two 'new' portraits of the Emperor Nero in English antiquarian collections| journal=Internet Archaeology| issue=42|year = 2016|last1 = Russell|first1 = Miles| last2=Manley| first2=Harry| doi-access=free}}</ref> a practice known as ''[[damnatio memoriae]]''. Champlin doubts that the practice is necessarily negative and notes that some continued to create images of Nero long after his death.<ref>[[#Champlin|Champlin]], pp. 29–31.</ref> Damaged portraits of Nero, often with hammer blows directed to the face, have been found in many provinces of the Roman Empire, three recently having been identified from the [[United Kingdom]].<ref name="pollini" /><ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.11141/ia.32.5|title = Finding Nero: shining a new light on Romano-British sculpture| journal=Internet Archaeology| issue=32|year = 2013|last1 = Russell|first1 = Miles| last2=Manley| first2=Harry| doi-access=free}}</ref> The civil war during the [[year of the Four Emperors]] was described by ancient historians as a troubling period.<ref name="tacitus-histories-I.2"/> According to Tacitus, this instability was rooted in the fact that emperors could no longer rely on the perceived legitimacy of the imperial bloodline, as Nero and those before him could.<ref name="histories-i-4"/> [[Galba]] began his short reign with the execution of many of Nero's allies.<ref>[[Tacitus]], ''Histories'' [[s:The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 1#6|I.6]].</ref> One such notable enemy included [[Nymphidius Sabinus]], who claimed to be the son of Emperor [[Caligula]].{{sfn|Plutarch|loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Galba*.html#9 Galba 9]}} [[Otho]] overthrew Galba. Otho was said to be liked by many soldiers because he had been a friend of Nero and resembled him somewhat in temperament.<ref>[[Tacitus]], ''Histories'' [[s:The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 1#13|I.13]].</ref> It was said that the common Roman hailed Otho as Nero himself.<ref name="suetonius-otho-7">[[Suetonius]], [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Otho*.html#7 Life of Otho 7].</ref> Otho used "Nero" as a surname and reerected many statues to Nero.<ref name="suetonius-otho-7"/> [[Vitellius]] overthrew Otho. Vitellius began his reign with a large funeral for Nero complete with songs written by Nero.<ref>Suetonius, [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Vitellius*.html#11 Life of Vitellius 11].</ref> After Nero's death in AD 68, there was a widespread belief, especially in the eastern provinces, that he was not dead and somehow would return.<ref>Suetonius, [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html#57 Life of Nero 57]; Tacitus, ''Histories'' [[s:The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 2#8|II.8]]; Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/66*.html#19 66.19] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221122094705/https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/66%2A.html#19 |date=22 November 2022 }}</ref> This belief came to be known as the [[Nero Redivivus Legend]]. The [[legend]] of Nero's return lasted for hundreds of years after Nero's death. [[Augustine of Hippo]] wrote of the legend as a popular belief in AD 422.<ref name="augustine">Augustine of Hippo, ''City of God''. [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf102.iv.XX.19.html XX.19.3] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070302004357/http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf102.iv.XX.19.html |date=2 March 2007 }}</ref> At least [[pseudo-Neros|three Nero impostors]] emerged leading rebellions. The first, who sang and played the cithara or lyre, and whose face was similar to that of the dead emperor, appeared in 69 AD during the reign of Vitellius.<ref name="tacitus-histories-II.8">Tacitus, ''Histories'' [[s:The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 2#8|II.8]].</ref> After persuading some to recognize him, he was captured and executed.<ref name="tacitus-histories-II.8"/> Sometime during the reign of [[Titus]] (79–81), another impostor appeared in Asia and sang to the accompaniment of the lyre and looked like Nero, but he, too, was killed.{{sfn|Cassius Dio|loc=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/66*.html#19 66.19]}}<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/66%2A.html |title=Archived copy |access-date=14 December 2022 |archive-date=22 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221122094705/https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/66%2A.html |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref> Twenty years after Nero's death, during the reign of [[Domitian]], there was a third pretender. He was supported by the Parthians, who only reluctantly gave him up,{{sfn|Suetonius|loc=57}} and the matter almost came to war.<ref name="tacitus-histories-I.2"/> Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. If you do not want your writing to be edited mercilessly, then do not submit it here. You are also promising us that you wrote this yourself, or copied it from a public domain or similar free resource (see Christianpedia:Copyrights for details). Do not submit copyrighted work without permission! Cancel Editing help (opens in new window) Discuss this page