Mozambican Civil War

=== Independence ===
{{main|Mozambican War of Independence}}

[[Portugal]] fought [[Portuguese Colonial War|a long and bitter counter-insurgency conflict]] in its three primary African colonies—[[Angola]], [[Mozambique]], and [[Guinea-Bissau]]—from the 1960s to the mid-1970s, when they finally received independence following the [[Carnation Revolution]]. In Mozambique, the armed struggle against colonial rule was spearheaded by the [[Front for the Liberation of Mozambique]] (FRELIMO), which was initially formed in exile<ref name=Nationalism>{{cite book|last=Derluguian|first=Georgi|editor-last=Morier-Genoud|editor-first=Eric|title=Sure Road? Nationalisms in Angola, Guinea-Bissau and Mozambique|date=1997|pages=81–95|publisher=Koninklijke Brill NV|location=Leiden|isbn=978-9004222618}}</ref> but later succeeded in wresting control of large sections of the country from the Portuguese.<ref name="Sellström">{{cite book|last=Sellström|first=Tor|url=http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:nai:diva-204|title=Sweden and National Liberation in Southern Africa: Vol. 2 : Solidarity and assistance, 1970–1994|publisher=Nordiska Afrikainstitutet|year=2002|isbn=978-91-7106-448-6|location=Uppsala|pages=97–99}}</ref> FRELIMO drew its initial base of support primarily from Mozambican migrant workers and expatriate intellectuals who had been exposed to the emerging popularity of anti-colonial and nationalist causes overseas, as well as the [[Makonde people|Makonde]] and other ethnic groups in northern Mozambique, where Portuguese influence was weakest.<ref name=Nationalism/><ref name=Walters>{{cite book|last=Walters|first=Barbara|editor-last=Snyder|editor-first=Jack|title=Civil Wars, Insecurity, and Intervention|date=1999|pages=52–58|publisher=Columbia University Press|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-0231116275}}</ref> The bulk of its members were drawn from Makonde workers who had witnessed pro-independence rallies in British-ruled [[Tanganyika (territory)|Tanganyika]].<ref name=Nationalism/> In September 1964, FRELIMO commenced an armed insurgency against the Portuguese.<ref name=Nationalism/> Its decision to take up arms was influenced by a number of internal and external factors, namely the recent successes of indigenous anti-colonial guerrilla movements in [[French Indochina]] and [[French Algeria]], as well as encouragement from contemporary African statesmen such as [[Ahmed Ben Bella]], [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]], and [[Julius Nyerere]].<ref name=Nationalism/> FRELIMO guerrillas initially received training primarily in North Africa and the Middle East in countries such as [[Algeria]], with the [[Soviet Union]] and [[People's Republic of China]] providing military equipment.<ref name=Nationalism/>

Portugal responded by embarking on a massive buildup of military personnel and security forces in Mozambique.<ref name=Nationalism/> It also established close defence ties with two of Mozambique's neighbours, [[Rhodesia]] and [[South Africa]].<ref name=Nationalism/> In 1970, the Portuguese launched [[Operation Gordian Knot]], which was initially successful at eliminating large numbers of FRELIMO guerrillas and their support bases in the north of the country; however, the redeployment of so many Portuguese troops to northern Mozambique allowed FRELIMO to intensify its operations elsewhere in the country.<ref name=Unity>{{cite book|last=Sayaka|first=Funada-Classen|title=The Origins of War in Mozambique: A History of Unity and Division|date=2013|pages=263–267|publisher=African Minds|location=Somerset West|isbn=978-1920489977}}</ref> The following year, Portugal established an informal military alliance with Rhodesia and South Africa known as the [[Alcora Exercise]].<ref name=Unity/> Representatives from the defence establishments of the three countries agreed to meet periodically to share intelligence and coordinate operations against militant nationalist movements in their respective countries.<ref name=Unity/> Simultaneously, FRELIMO also pursued close relations with the latter; for example, by 1971 it had cultivated an alliance with the [[Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army]] (ZANLA).<ref name=Unity/> ZANLA insurgents were permitted to infiltrate Rhodesia from FRELIMO-held territory.<ref name=Unity/> During the late 1960s, the [[Azanian People's Liberation Army]] (APLA) also took advantage of the gradual disintegration of Portuguese military control in Mozambique to begin infiltrating South Africa from that territory.<ref name=Stapleton2>{{cite book|last=Stapleton|first=Timothy|title=A Military History of South Africa: From the Dutch-Khoi Wars to the End of Apartheid|year=2010|pages=167–185|publisher=Praeger Security International|location=Santa Barbara|isbn=978-0313365898}}</ref>

In April 1974, Portugal's longstanding [[Estado Novo (Portugal)|Estado Novo]] political order was dismantled as a result of the Carnation Revolution.<ref name="George">{{cite book|title=The Cuban intervention in Angola |last=George|first=Edward|location=New York|publisher=Frank Cass Publishers|year=2005|isbn=978-0415647106|pages=49–53}}</ref> The revolution also brought to power a military junta known as the [[Armed Forces Movement]], which was committed to divesting itself of the colonies and ending the increasingly costly African wars.<ref name="George"/> The turmoil in the [[metropole]] was mirrored by increasing instability in Mozambique and a further weakening of Portugal's grip on its East African colony.<ref name=Finnegan>{{cite book|last=Finnegan|first=William|title=A Complicated War: The Harrowing of Mozambique|url=https://archive.org/details/complicatedwarha00finn|url-access=registration|date=1992|pages=[https://archive.org/details/complicatedwarha00finn/page/112 112–118]|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley|isbn=978-0520082663}}</ref> Various new political parties were formed in Mozambique, including several by FRELIMO splinter factions, during the following months in anticipation of multi-party elections.<ref name=Finnegan/> However, FRELIMO insisted on being recognised as the sole legitimate representative of the new Mozambican nation.<ref name=Finnegan/> It rejected proposals for multi-party elections and took advantage of the chaos in the Portuguese military establishment to intensify its guerrilla campaign.<ref name=Finnegan/> In early September 1974, Portugal announced it was acceding to FRELIMO's request.<ref name=Finnegan/> No elections were going to be held in Mozambique; instead, after a nine-month transition period, the positions of local government would simply be handed to FRELIMO officials.<ref name=Finnegan/>

The Portuguese decision to effect a transfer to power to FRELIMO, without a local referendum or elections, was greeted with intense trepidation by Portugal's traditional Cold War allies: South Africa, Rhodesia, and the United States.<ref name=Volk>{{cite book|last=Miller|first=Jamie|title=An African Volk: The Apartheid Regime and Its Search for Survival|year=2016|pages=122–126, 314|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0190274832}}</ref> The US government predicted that an independent Mozambique under the direction of FRELIMO would be heavily influenced by the Soviet bloc.<ref name=Volk/> Black opposition movements in South Africa declared that they would bring FRELIMO officials to address rallies being held near Durban, Johannesburg, and at the University of Northern Transvaal.<ref name=Volk/> The South African authorities banned the demonstrations, but activists proceeded anyway in defiance of the police.<ref name=Volk/> By the end of the year, sixty people had been arrested for organising pro-FRELIMO rallies.<ref name=Volk/>

In Mozambique, the announcement sparked an uprising by right-wing elements in the white population, joined by disgruntled veterans of the colonial army and some black Mozambicans outraged by FRELIMO's pending unilateral assumption of power.<ref name=Minter>{{cite book|last=Minter|first=William|title=Apartheid's Contras: An Inquiry into the Roots of War in Angola and Mozambique|year=1994|pages=11–16|publisher=Witwatersrand University Press|location=Johannesburg|isbn=978-1439216187}}</ref> The rebels appealed to South Africa and Rhodesia for military assistance to preempt the installation of a FRELIMO government.<ref name="SmithGB">{{cite book|author= Smith, Ian|title=The Great Betrayal|pages=74–256|publisher= Blake Publishing Ltd.|location=London|year=1997|isbn= 1-85782-176-9}}</ref> However, South African prime minister [[B. J. Vorster]] was unwilling to intervene, fearing condemnation from the international community for any interference with the decolonisation process in a neighbouring country.<ref name="SmithGB"/> Rhodesian prime minister [[Ian Smith]] was more sympathetic to the rebels' cause but felt that he would unable to act without the guarantee of South African support.<ref name="SmithGB"/> The uprising was eventually crushed after four days by an unlikely coalition of Portuguese and FRELIMO forces.<ref name=Minter/>

On 25 June 1975 Mozambique formally gained independence from Portugal, with FRELIMO Leader [[Samora Machel]] becoming President of the [[People's Republic of Mozambique]].