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Do not fill this in! === Dakota homeland, city founded === {{main|Dakota people|Ojibwe|Bdóte|US–Dakota War of 1862}} [[File:Minneapolis-map-m0079.jpg|thumb|upright=.6|alt=Line drawing of the location of villages and paths, map shows the Minnesota River (then called St Peter), the Mississippi, Minnehaha Creek, Saint Anthony Falls, and several lakes|Area that became Minneapolis pictured {{circa| 1820–1860}}]] Two Indigenous nations inhabited the area now called Minneapolis.{{sfn|Lass|2000|p=40}} Archaeologists have evidence to say at least since 1000 A.D.,<ref name=RFurst>{{cite news|title=Which Indigenous tribes first called Minnesota home?|url=https://www.startribune.com/native-american-dakota-ojibwe-history/600097050/|last=Furst|first=Randy|date=October 8, 2021|access-date=November 3, 2023|newspaper=[[Star Tribune]]|archive-date=November 3, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231103230331/https://www.startribune.com/native-american-dakota-ojibwe-history/600097050/|url-status=live}}</ref> they are the [[Dakota people|Dakota]] (one half of the [[Sioux]] nation),{{sfn|Wingerd|2010|p=365n}} and, after the 1700s,{{sfn|McConvell|Rhodes|Güldemann|2020|pp=560, 564|loc="Finally in this time frame other groups of Ojibwes began pushing to the west and southwest, at the expense of the Dakota groups"}} the [[Ojibwe]] (also known as Chippewa, members of the Anishinaabe nations).{{sfn|Treuer|2010|p=3}} Dakota people have different stories to explain their creation.{{sfn|Westerman|White|2012|p=15}} One widely accepted story says the Dakota emerged from [[Bdóte]],{{sfn|Westerman|White|2012|p=15}} the confluence of the [[Minnesota River|Minnesota]] and [[Mississippi river]]s. Dakota are the only inhabitants of the Minneapolis area who claimed no other land;{{sfn|Weber|2022|p=6}} they have no traditions of having immigrated.{{sfn|Westerman|White|2012|pp=3–4|loc="William H. Keating, a geologist who came to the Minnesota area on an exploratory expedition in 1823, observed, 'The Dacotas have no tradition of having ever emigrated, from any other place, to the spot on which they now reside...'}} In 1680, cleric [[Louis Hennepin]], who was probably the first European to see the Minneapolis waterfall the Dakota people call [[Owámniyomni]], renamed it the Falls of St. [[Anthony of Padua]] for his patron saint.{{sfn|DeCarlo|2020|p=15}} In the [[Dakota language]], the city's name is ''Bde Óta Othúŋwe'' ('Many Lakes Town').{{efn|The University of Minnesota Dakota Dictionary Online requires a Dakota font to read special characters.<ref>{{cite web |url = https://fmp.cla.umn.edu/dakota/browserecord.php?-action=browse&-recid=73 |title = Bdeota O™uåwe |access-date = October 13, 2022 |work = University of Minnesota Dakota Dictionary Online|publisher=[[University of Minnesota]]|archive-date = October 13, 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20221013173548/https://fmp.cla.umn.edu/dakota/browserecord.php?-action=browse&-recid=73 |url-status = live }}</ref> Here, Dakota to Latin alphabet transliteration is borrowed from [[Lerner Publishing Group|Lerner Publishing]] in Minneapolis.{{sfn|Kimmerer|Smith|2022|p=302}}}} Purchasing most of modern-day Minneapolis, [[Zebulon Pike]] made the [[Treaty of St. Peters#1805 Treaty of St. Peters|1805 Treaty of St. Peter]] with the Dakota.{{efn|Because President Thomas Jefferson had not authorized Pike's trip, which was made at the behest of [[James Wilkinson]], the new governor of the Louisiana territory, Pike did not have the authority to make a treaty.{{sfn|Weber|2022|p=14}} Pike valued the land at $200,000 in his journal but omitted the value in Article 2 of the treaty. Pike gave the chiefs {{convert|60|gal|l}} of liquor and $200 in gifts at the signing.{{sfn|Westerman|White|2012|p=141}} In 1808, the US Senate authorized one hundredth of Pike's estimate and added acreage,{{sfn|Westerman|White|2012|p=141}} paying $2,000 for the land in 1819.{{sfn|Weber|2022|p=13}}}} Pike bought a {{convert|9|sqmi|sqkm|adj=on}} strip of land—coinciding with the sacred place of Dakota origin{{sfn|Westerman|White|2012|p=15}}—on the Mississippi south of Saint Anthony Falls,{{sfn|Stipanovich|1982|p=4}} with the agreement the US would build a military fort and trading post there and the Dakota would retain their land use rights.{{sfn|Wingerd|2010|p=77}} In 1819, the [[United States Army|US Army]] built [[Fort Snelling]]<ref>{{cite news |url = https://www.latimes.com/travel/la-xpm-2012-sep-16-la-tr-ftsnellingminnesota-20120916-story.html |last1 = Watson |first1 = Catherine |date = September 16, 2012 |access-date = December 27, 2019 |work = [[Los Angeles Times]] |title = Ft. Snelling: Citadel on a Minnesota bluff |archive-date = May 7, 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210507133632/https://www.latimes.com/travel/la-xpm-2012-sep-16-la-tr-ftsnellingminnesota-20120916-story.html |url-status = live }}</ref> to direct Native American trade away from British-Canadian traders, and to deter warring between the Dakota and [[Ojibwe]] in northern Minnesota.{{sfn|Wingerd|2010|p=82}} The fort attracted traders, settlers, and merchants, spurring growth in the surrounding region. Agents of the St. Peters Indian Agency at the fort enforced the US policy of [[Cultural assimilation of Native Americans|assimilating Native Americans into mainstream American society]], asking them to give up subsistence hunting and cultivate the land.<ref name="mnhsFort" /> Missionaries encouraged Native Americans to convert from [[Native American religion|their religion]] to Christianity.<ref name="mnhsFort">{{cite web |url = https://www.mnhs.org/fortsnelling/learn/native-americans/us-indian-agency |title = Historic Fort Snelling: The US Indian Agency (1820–1853) |publisher = [[Minnesota Historical Society]] |access-date = December 27, 2019 |archive-date = August 14, 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210814051357/https://www.mnhs.org/fortsnelling/learn/native-americans/us-indian-agency |url-status = live }}</ref> Under pressure from US officials{{sfn|Westerman|White|2012|p=4|loc="government officials put great pressure on Dakota leaders to be quick about signing a treaty..."}} in a series of treaties, the Dakota ceded their land first to the east, and then to the west of the Mississippi, the river that runs through Minneapolis.<ref name=MNtreaties>{{cite web|url=https://www.usdakotawar.org/history/treaties/minnesota-treaties|title=Minnesota Treaties|date=August 14, 2012|access-date=November 16, 2023|publisher=[[Minnesota Historical Society]]|archive-date=August 25, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190825023515/http://www.usdakotawar.org/history/treaties/minnesota-treaties|url-status=live}}</ref>{{efn|In the 1851 [[Treaty of Traverse des Sioux]] and [[Treaty of Mendota]], the US took all Dakota land west of the Mississippi,{{sfn|Lass|2000|p=108}} about {{convert|24|e6acre}},{{sfn|Westerman|White|2012|p=182}} in exchange for a {{convert|10|mi|km|adj=on}} wide reservation on the Minnesota River{{sfn|Folwell|1921|p=216}} and about $3 million {{USDCY|3000000|1851}}. Ater expenses, the Dakota were promised fifty years of annuities in goods{{sfn|Westerman|White|2012|p=171}} and interest on $1,360,000 and $1,410,000; the US kept the principal.{{sfn|Anderson|2019|p=30}} The Dakota could not read English, and their interpreters worked for the US.<ref name=MNtreaties /> In Mendota, negotiator [[Wacouta I|Wakute]] said he feared signing a treaty because the prior treaty was changed from the one he had signed.{{sfn|Westerman|White|2012|pp=5, 188}} Indeed, the US Congress ratified amendments after the fact, and refused to consider payment unless the Dakota agreed to their new terms—in 1852 Congress struck the reservation from the final treaty.{{sfn|Wingerd|2010|p=197}} Negotiators [[Bureau of Indian Affairs#Commissioners and assistant secretaries|Luke Lea]] and [[Alexander Ramsey]] had promised the Dakota they would prosper, and rushed the transaction.{{sfn|Wingerd|2010|pp=189–192}} The chiefs were asked to sign a third paper in 1851—onlookers assumed it was a third copy of the treaty{{sfn|Westerman|White|2012|p=180–181}}—that Ramsey later declared was a "solemn acknowledgment" of the Dakota's debt to traders.{{sfn|Westerman|White|2012|p=191}} Ramsey, as territorial governor, enforced the trader's paper, distributing the monies to himself, [[Henry Hastings Sibley|Henry Sibley]], and their friends.{{sfn|Anderson|2019|loc=pp. 32–33. Anderson examined the Dousman Papers to formulate estimates of the funds that were diverted to White officials}}}} Dakota leaders twice refused to sign the next treaty until they were paid for the previous one.{{sfn|Wingerd|2010|pp=187, 193}}In the space of sixty years, the US had seized all of Dakota land. In the decades following these treaty signings, the [[Federal government of the United States|federal US government]] rarely honored their terms.<ref>{{Cite web |title = Treaties |url = https://www.usdakotawar.org/history/treaties |access-date = June 1, 2021 |date = July 31, 2012 |publisher = [[Minnesota Historical Society]] |quote = These treaties, which were almost wholly dishonored by the U.S. government... |archive-date = August 15, 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210815133626/https://www.usdakotawar.org/history/treaties |url-status = live }}</ref> After closing in 1858, the [[University of Minnesota]] was revived using land taken from the Dakota people under the [[Morrill Land-Grant Acts]] in 1862.<ref name="morillgrant">{{cite news | last=Vue | first=Katelyn | title=Over 150 years ago, tribal land revived the University. Now, American Indian leaders, students and faculty want this history addressed | newspaper=[[Minnesota Daily]] | date=July 7, 2020 | url=https://mndaily.com/255055/news/acmorrillact/ | access-date=November 25, 2023 | archive-date=November 25, 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125170957/https://mndaily.com/255055/news/acmorrillact/ | url-status=live }}</ref>{{efn|The Treaty of 1837 forced Dakota to make the largest land cession—all of their land east of the Mississippi.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cam.ac.uk/stories/great-university-land-grab|title=The great university land-grab|last=Almeroth-Williams|first=Tom|quote=The Treaty of 1837 gave 1,062,334 acres, more than any other land cession, to 33 LGUs|access-date=April 11, 2024|publisher=[[University of Cambridge]]|archive-date=February 14, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240214085809/https://www.cam.ac.uk/stories/great-university-land-grab|url-status=live}}</ref> Then the Dakota ceded more of their land in the Treaty of 1851.<ref name="Bhattacharya 2023 l546">{{cite news | last=Bhattacharya | first=Ananya | title=Native Americans are struggling to put a dollar value on how much "land-grab" universities owe them | newspaper=Quartz | date=July 10, 2023 | url=https://qz.com/native-americans-are-struggling-to-put-a-dollar-value-o-1850620896 | access-date=November 25, 2023 | archive-date=November 25, 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125171143/https://qz.com/native-americans-are-struggling-to-put-a-dollar-value-o-1850620896 | url-status=live }}</ref>}} [[File:Dakota-Interment-Pike Island.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Black and white photo of one end of an island covered with hundreds of teepees inside a stockade|Dakota non-combatants living in a [[concentration camp]] at [[Fort Snelling]] during the winter of 1862<ref name="Minnesota Historical Society 2015 w866">{{cite web | title=The US-Dakota War of 1862 | publisher=[[Minnesota Historical Society]] | date=November 23, 2015 | url=https://www.mnhs.org/fortsnelling/learn/us-dakota-war | access-date=April 13, 2024 | archive-date=September 20, 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230920024828/https://www.mnhs.org/fortsnelling/learn/us-dakota-war | url-status=live }}</ref>]] At the beginning of the American Civil War, annuity payments owed in June 1862 to the Dakota by treaty were late, causing acute hunger among the Dakota.{{sfn|Blegen|1975|p=265–267}}{{efn|Part of the delay was a month's indecision in the US Treasury about appropriating gold or greenbacks and in Congress, which was preoccupied with Civil War finance. Gold arrived in the region just a few hours after settlers had been killed and war had begun.{{sfn|Folwell|1921|pp=237–238}}}} Facing starvation{{sfn|Anderson|2019|loc=p. 55: "...they had to beg for food from the settlers or starve"}} a faction of the Dakota declared [[Dakota War of 1862|war]] in August and killed settlers.{{sfn|Wingerd|2010|p=307|loc=The uprising involved at most 1,000 of the Dakota population of more than 7,000}} Serving without any prior military experience, US commander [[Henry Hastings Sibley|Henry Sibley]] had raw recruits,{{sfn|Wingerd|2010|p=309}} among them the only mounted troops were volunteers from Minneapolis and Saint Paul with no military experience.{{sfn|Wingerd|2010|pp=309, 314}} The war went on for six weeks in the Minnesota River valley.<ref name=MNHSwar /> Some terrified [[American pioneer|American settlers]] traveled {{convert|80|mi|km}} away from the massacre to Minneapolis for safety.{{sfn|Leonard|1915|loc=search for "refugees"}} After a US [[kangaroo court]],{{sfn|Wingerd|2010|p=313|loc="what could only be termed a kangaroo court..."}} 38 Dakota men died by hanging as ordered by [[Abraham Lincoln]].<ref name=MNHSwar>{{cite web|url=https://www.mnhs.org/lowersioux/learn/us-dakota-war-1862|title=US-Dakota War of 1862|access-date=November 6, 2023|publisher=[[Minnesota Historical Society]]|archive-date=September 30, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230930235003/https://www.mnhs.org/lowersioux/learn/us-dakota-war-1862|url-status=live}}</ref> The army marched 1,700 non-hostile Dakota men, women, children, and elders {{convert|150|mi|km}} to a [[concentration camp]] at [[Fort Snelling]].<ref name="Minnesota Historical Society 2015 w866"/>{{sfn|Wingerd|2010|p=319}} Minneapolitans reportedly threatened more than once to attack the camp.{{sfn|Wingerd|2010|p=320}} In 1863, the US "abrogated and annulled" all treaties with the Dakota.{{sfn|Vogel|2013|p=540}} With Governor [[Alexander Ramsey]] calling for their extermination,{{sfn|Anderson|2019|p=188}} most Dakota were exiled from Minnesota.<ref>{{cite web |title = Forced Marches & Imprisonment |date = August 23, 2012 |url = https://www.usdakotawar.org/history/aftermath/forced-marches-imprisonment |access-date = March 2, 2023 |archive-date = May 8, 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210508061622/https://www.usdakotawar.org/history/aftermath/forced-marches-imprisonment |url-status = live |publisher = [[Minnesota Historical Society]]}}</ref> While the Dakota were being expelled, [[Franklin Steele]] laid claim to the east bank of [[Saint Anthony Falls]],<ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.nps.gov/articles/wheat-farms-flour-mills-and-railroads-a-web-of-interdependence-teaching-with-historic-places.htm |title = Wheat Farms, Flour Mills, and Railroads: A Web of Interdependence |access-date = March 2, 2023 |publisher = [[US National Park Service]] |archive-date = March 2, 2023 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230302182707/https://www.nps.gov/articles/wheat-farms-flour-mills-and-railroads-a-web-of-interdependence-teaching-with-historic-places.htm |url-status = live }}</ref> and [[John H. Stevens]] built a home on the west bank.<ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.nps.gov/miss/planyourvisit/johnstev.htm |title = John H. Stevens House Museum |access-date = December 31, 2019 |publisher = [[US National Park Service]] |archive-date = August 15, 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210815131225/https://www.nps.gov/miss/planyourvisit/johnstev.htm |url-status = live }}</ref> Residents had divergent ideas on names for their community. In 1852, [[Charles Hoag]] proposed combining the Dakota word for 'water' (''mni''{{efn|In [[Isaac Atwater|Atwater]]'s history, Baldwin gives the Sioux word as ''Minne''.{{sfn|Baldwin|1893a|p=39}} [[Stephen Return Riggs|Riggs]] gives ''mini''.{{sfn|Riggs|1992|p=314}} [[John Poage Williamson|Williamson]] who was most familiar with [[Dakota people|Santee]] has ''Mini'', and in the [[Dakota people|Yankton]] dialect, ''mni''.{{sfn|Williamson|1992|p=257}} Here, ''mni'' is from the University of Minnesota Dakota Dictionary Online.<ref>{{cite web |url = https://fmp.cla.umn.edu/dakota/browserecord.php?-action=browse&-recid=846 |title = mni |access-date = October 13, 2022 |work = University of Minnesota Dakota Dictionary Online|publisher=[[University of Minnesota]] |archive-date = October 13, 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20221013174751/https://fmp.cla.umn.edu/dakota/browserecord.php?-action=browse&-recid=846 |url-status = live }}</ref>}}) with the Greek word for 'city' ({{lang|el|polis}}), yielding ''Minneapolis''. In 1851 after a meeting of the [[Minnesota Territorial Legislature]], leaders of east bank St. Anthony lost their bid to move the capital from Saint Paul.<ref name=McKinney /> In a close vote, Saint Paul and [[Stillwater, Minnesota|Stillwater]] agreed to divide federal funding:<ref name=McKinney /> Saint Paul would be the capital, while Stillwater would build the prison. The St. Anthony contingent eventually won the state university.<ref name=McKinney>{{cite book |author = Christianson, Theodore |publisher = [[American Historical Society]] |title = Minnesota: The Land of Sky-tinted Waters: A History of the State And Its People |date = 1935 |location = Chicago }} Courtesy ''[[Star Tribune]]'' and the Minnesota Legislative Reference Library, in {{cite news |title = How did Stillwater become home to Minnesota's first prison? |url = https://www.startribune.com/minnesota-territorial-prison-stillwater-history/600199594/ |author = McKinney, Matt |date = August 19, 2022 |access-date = August 19, 2022 |work =[[Star Tribune]]|archive-date = August 19, 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220819125313/https://www.startribune.com/minnesota-territorial-prison-stillwater-history/600199594/ |url-status = live }}</ref> In 1855 with a charter from the legislature, Steele and associates opened the [[Hennepin Avenue Bridge|first bridge]] across the Mississippi; the toll bridge cost pedestrians three cents {{USDCY|0.03|1855}}.<ref>{{cite news|title=Father Louis Hennepin Bridge was first to span Mississippi|last=Reicher|first=Matt|date=May 6, 2014|access-date=May 11, 2023|url=https://www.minnpost.com/mnopedia/2014/05/father-louis-hennepin-bridge-was-first-span-mississippi/|work=[[MinnPost]]|archive-date=May 11, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230511143904/https://www.minnpost.com/mnopedia/2014/05/father-louis-hennepin-bridge-was-first-span-mississippi/|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1856, the territorial legislature authorized Minneapolis as a town on the Mississippi's west bank.{{sfn|Baldwin|1893a|p=39}} Minneapolis was incorporated as a city in 1867, and in 1872, it merged with St. Anthony.<ref>{{cite web |title = A History of Minneapolis: Governance and Infrastructure |url = http://www.hclib.org/pub/search/specialcollections/mplshistory/?id=19 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120422185148/http://www.hclib.org/pub/search/specialcollections/mplshistory/?id=19 |archive-date = April 22, 2012 |access-date = March 12, 2023 |publisher =[[Hennepin County Library]]}}</ref> Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. 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