Mandatory Palestine Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! ==History== {{For|the background to the creation of the mandate|Mandate for Palestine}} {{For|the period of Palestine's history between the fall of the Ottoman Empire in 1917–18 and the beginning of British civil administration in July 1920|Occupied Enemy Territory Administration}} ===1920s=== [[File:Crowded shops. Goods are stalled in the street and men are sitting down, NINO F Scholten Jaffa 01 076.tiff|thumb|Palestinians in Jaffa in the 1920s]]Following the arrival of the British, Arab inhabitants established [[Muslim-Christian Associations]] in all of the major towns.<ref name=lapidus>Ira M. Lapidus, ''A History of Islamic Societies'', 2002: "The first were the nationalists, who in 1918 formed the first Muslim-Christian associations to protest against the Jewish national home" p.558</ref> In 1919 they joined to hold the first [[Palestine Arab Congress]] in Jerusalem.<ref>Tessler, ''A History of the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict, Second Edition'', 2009: "An All-Palestine Congress, known also as the First Congress of the Muslim-Christian Societies, was organised by the MCA and convened in Jerusalem in February 1919." p.220-221</ref> It was aimed primarily at representative government and opposition to the [[Balfour Declaration]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://content.ecf.org.il/files/M00661_FirstArabCongress1919ParisResolutionArabic.pdf|title=First Arab Congress 1919 Paris Resolution (in Arabic)|website=ecf.org.il|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170925040044/http://content.ecf.org.il/files/M00661_FirstArabCongress1919ParisResolutionArabic.pdf|archive-date=25 September 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> Concurrently, the [[Zionist Commission]] formed in March 1918 and actively promoted Zionist objectives in Palestine. On 19 April 1920, [[1920 Assembly of Representatives election|elections]] took place for the [[Assembly of Representatives (Mandate Palestine)|Assembly of Representatives]] of the [[Yishuv|Palestinian Jewish community]].<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.palestinechronicle.com/view_article_details.php?id=14037 |title= Palestine Through History: A Chronology (I) |access-date= 14 February 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110617020548/http://www.palestinechronicle.com/view_article_details.php?id=14037 |archive-date= 17 June 2011 }} The Palestine Chronicle</ref> In March 1920, there was an [[Battle of Tel Hai|attack]] by Arabs on the Jewish village of [[Tel Hai]]. In April, there was another [[1920 Nebi Musa riots|attack]] on Jews, this time in Jerusalem. In July 1920, a British civilian administration headed by a [[High Commissioners of Palestine|High Commissioner]] replaced the military administration.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/FB6DD3F0E9535815852572DD006CC607|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140603191241/http://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/FB6DD3F0E9535815852572DD006CC607|url-status=dead|title=United Nations Maintenance Page|archivedate=3 June 2014|website=unispal.un.org}}</ref> The first High Commissioner, [[Herbert Samuel, 1st Viscount Samuel|Sir Herbert Samuel]], a Zionist and a recent British cabinet minister, arrived in Palestine on 20 June 1920 to take up his appointment from 1 July. Samuel established his headquarters and [[official residence]] in part of the [[Augusta Victoria Hospital]] complex on [[Mount Scopus]] on what was then the northeastern edge of Jerusalem, a building that had been constructed for the Germans ''circa'' 1910.<ref name="Haaretz"> 'A Colonial Room With a View of Jerusalem' (''[[Haaretz]]'', 24 April 2012). https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/culture/2012-04-24/ty-article/a-colonial-room-with-a-view-of-Jerusalem/0000017f-deec-db22-a17f-fefd9e520000</ref> Damaged by an earthquake in 1927, this building served as the headquarters and official residence of the British High Commissioners until 1933.<ref name="Haaretz"/> In that year, a new, purpose-built headquarters and official residence for the High Commissioner was completed on what was then the southeastern edge of Jerusalem.<ref name="Haaretz"/> Referred to as ''[[Armon HaNetziv]]'' by the Jewish population, this building, located on the 'Hill of Evil Counsel' on the ridge of [[Jabel Mukaber]], remained in use as the headquarters and official residence of the British High Commissioners until the end of British rule in 1948.<ref name="Haaretz"/> [[File:A world in perplexity (1918) (14780310121).jpg|left|thumb|The formal transfer of Jerusalem to British rule, with a "native priest" reading the proclamation from the steps of the [[Tower of David]]]] [[File:Samuelarrival.jpg|thumb|upright|The arrival of [[Herbert Samuel, 1st Viscount Samuel|Sir Herbert Samuel]]. From left to right: [[T. E. Lawrence]], [[Abdullah I of Jordan|Emir Abdullah]], Air Marshal [[Geoffrey Salmond|Sir Geoffrey Salmond]], [[Wyndham Deedes|Sir Wyndham Deedes]] and others]] [[File:Palestinian delegation 1929.jpg|thumb|An Arab "protest gathering" in session, in the Rawdat el Maaref hall, 1929. From left to right : unknown – [[Amin al-Husayni]] – [[Musa al-Husayni]] – [[Raghib al-Nashashibi]] – unknown]] One of the first actions of the newly installed civil administration was to begin granting [[Concessions in Mandatory Palestine|concessions from the Mandatory government]] over key economic assets. In 1921 the government granted [[Pinhas Rutenberg]] – a Jewish entrepreneur – concessions for the production and distribution of electrical power. Rutenberg soon established an electric company whose shareholders were Zionist organisations, investors, and philanthropists. Palestinian-Arabs saw it as proof that the British intended to favour Zionism. The British administration claimed that electrification would enhance the economic development of the country as a whole, while at the same time securing their commitment to facilitate a Jewish National Home through economic{{Snd}}rather than political{{Snd}}means.<ref>Shamir, Ronen (2013) ''Current Flow: The Electrification of Palestine'' Stanford: Stanford University Press</ref> In May 1921, following a disturbance between rival Jewish left-wing protestors and then attacks by Arabs on Jews, almost 100 died in [[1921 Jaffa riots|rioting in Jaffa]]. High Commissioner Samuel tried to establish self-governing institutions in Palestine, as required by the mandate, but the Arab leadership refused to co-operate with any institution which included Jewish participation.<ref>Caplan, Neil. ''Palestine Jewry and the Arab Question, 1917 – 1925''. London and Totowa, NJ: F. Cass, 1978. {{ISBN|978-0-7146-3110-3}}. pp. 148–161.</ref> When [[Kamil al-Husayni]], the [[Grand Mufti of Jerusalem]], died in March 1921, High Commissioner Samuel appointed his half-brother, [[Mohammad Amin al-Husseini]], to the position. Amin al-Husseini, a member of the [[al-Husayni]] clan of Jerusalem, was an [[Arab nationalist]] and Muslim leader. As Grand Mufti, as well as in the other influential positions that he held during this period, al-Husseini played a key role in violent opposition to [[Zionism]]. In 1922, al-Husseini was elected President of the [[Supreme Muslim Council]] which had been established by Samuel in December 1921.<ref name=Mattar2003>{{cite encyclopaedia |last= Mattar |first= Philip |author-link= Philip Mattar |editor= Mattar, Philip |encyclopaedia= Encyclopedia of the Palestinians |title= al-Husayni, Amin |edition= Revised |year= 2003 |publisher= Facts On File |location= New York |isbn= 978-0-8160-5764-1}}</ref><ref>"It was not scholarly religious credentials that made Hajj Amin an attractive candidate for president of the SMC in the eyes of colonial officials. Rather, it was the combination of his being an effective nationalist activist and a member of one of Jerusalem's most respected notable families that made it advantageous to align his interests with those of the British administration and thereby keep him on a short tether." Weldon C. Matthews, ''Confronting an Empire, Constructing a Nation: Arab Nationalists and Popular Politics in Mandate Palestine'', I.B.Tauris, 2006 pp. 31–32</ref> The Council controlled the [[Waqf]] funds, worth annually tens of thousands of pounds,<ref>For details see Yitzhak Reiter, ''Islamic Endowments in Jerusalem under British Mandate'', Frank Cass, London Portland, Oregon, 1996</ref> and the orphan funds, worth annually about £50,000, as compared to the £600,000 in the [[Jewish Agency]]'s annual budget.<ref>Excluding funds for land purchases. Sahar Huneidi, ''A Broken Trust: Herbert Samuel, Zionism and the Palestinians 1920–1925'', I.B. Tauris, London and New York, 2001 p. 38. The 'Jewish Agency', mentioned in article 4 of the Mandate only became the official term in 1928. At the time the organisation was called the Palestine Zionist Executive.</ref> In addition, he controlled the [[Shariah|Islamic]] courts in Palestine. Among other functions, these courts had the power to appoint teachers and preachers. The 1922 Palestine [[Order in Council]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/C7AAE196F41AA055052565F50054E656|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140916132453/http://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/C7AAE196F41AA055052565F50054E656|title=1922 Palestine Order in Council|archivedate=16 September 2014}}</ref> established a Legislative Council, which was to consist of 23 members: 12 elected, 10 appointed, and the High Commissioner.<ref name=T1/> Of the 12 elected members, eight were to be Muslim Arabs, two Christian Arabs, and two Jews.<ref name=A>[http://www.answers.com/topic/legislative-council-palestine Legislative Council (Palestine)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181015060758/http://www.answers.com/topic/legislative-council-palestine |date=15 October 2018 }} Answers.com</ref> Arabs protested against the distribution of the seats, arguing that as they constituted 88% of the population, having only 43% of the seats was unfair.<ref name=A/> [[1923 Palestinian Legislative Council election|Elections]] took place in February and March 1923, but due to an Arab [[boycott]], the results were annulled and a 12-member Advisory Council was established.<ref name=T1>"Palestine. The Constitution Suspended. Arab Boycott Of Elections. Back To British Rule" ''The Times'', 30 May 1923, p. 14, Issue 43354</ref> At the [[First World Congress of Jewish Women]] which was held in [[Vienna]], Austria, 1923, it was decided that: "It appears, therefore, to be the duty of all Jews to co-operate in the social-economic reconstruction of Palestine and to assist in the settlement of Jews in that country."<ref name=jwa>{{cite web|url=https://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/international-council-of-jewish-women|title=International Council of Jewish Women|author=Las, Nelly|publisher=International Council of Jewish Women|access-date=20 November 2018 }}</ref> In October 1923, Britain provided the League of Nations with a report on the administration of Palestine for the period 1920–1922, which covered the period before the mandate.<ref>League of Nations, ''Official Journal'', October 1923, p. 1217.</ref> In August 1929, there were [[1929 Palestine riots|riots]] in which 250 people died. ===1930s: Arab armed insurgency=== In 1930, [[Sheikh]] [[Izz ad-Din al-Qassam]] arrived in Palestine from Syria, then part of the French-ruled [[Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon]], and organised and established the [[Black Hand (Mandatory Palestine)|Black Hand]], an [[anti-Zionist]] and anti-British militant organisation. He recruited and arranged military training for peasants, and by 1935 he had enlisted between 200 and 800 men. They used bombs and firearms against Zionist settlers and vandalised settlers' orchards and British-built railway lines.<ref name=segev>{{harvnb|Segev|2000|pp=[https://archive.org/details/onepalestinecomp00sege/page/360 360–362]}}</ref> In November 1935, two of his men engaged in a firefight with a [[Palestine Police]] patrol hunting fruit thieves and a policeman was killed. Following the incident, British colonial police launched a search and surrounded al-Qassam in a cave near [[Ya'bad]]. In the ensuing battle, al-Qassam was killed.<ref name=segev/> ====The Arab revolt==== [[File:Resistance of Palestinian men and women.png|thumb|Arab revolt against the British]] {{main|1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine}} The death of al-Qassam on 20 November 1935 generated widespread outrage in the Arab community. Huge crowds accompanied Qassam's body to his grave in [[Haifa]]. A few months later, in April 1936, the Arab national [[general strike]] broke out. The strike lasted until October 1936, instigated by the Arab Higher Committee, headed by Amin al-Husseini. During the summer of that year, thousands of Jewish-farmed acres and orchards were destroyed. Jewish civilians were attacked and killed, and some Jewish communities, such as those in [[Beisan]] ([[Beit She'an]]) and [[Acre, Israel|Acre]], fled to safer areas.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilbert|1998|p= 80}}</ref> The violence abated for about a year while the British sent the [[Peel Commission]] to investigate.<ref>{{harvnb|Khalidi|2006|pp=87–90}}</ref> During the first stages of the Arab Revolt, due to rivalry between the clans of al-Husseini and [[Nashashibi]] among the Palestinian Arabs, Raghib Nashashibi was forced to flee to Egypt after several assassination attempts ordered by Amin al-Husseini.<ref>{{cite book |last=Smith |first=Charles D. |title=Palestine and the Arab–Israeli Conflict: A History with Documents |edition=Sixth |year=2007 |pages=111–225}}</ref> After the Arab rejection of the Peel Commission recommendation, the revolt resumed in autumn 1937. Over the next 18 months, the British lost [[Nablus]] and Hebron. British forces, supported by 6,000 armed Jewish auxiliary police,<ref>{{Harvnb|Gilbert|1998|p= 85}}: The [[Jewish Settlement Police]] were created and equipped with trucks and armoured cars by the British working with the [[Jewish Agency for Israel|Jewish Agency]].</ref> suppressed the widespread riots with overwhelming force. The British officer [[Orde Charles Wingate|Charles Orde Wingate]] (who supported a Zionist revival for religious reasons<ref>{{Citation |publisher= IDC |title= Covenant |contribution= The Zionism of Orde |volume= 3 |issue= 1 |url= http://www.covenant.idc.ac.il/en/vol3/issue1/The_Zionism_of_Orde.html |access-date= 4 August 2014 |archive-date= 1 August 2014 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140801015753/http://covenant.idc.ac.il/en/vol3/issue1/The_Zionism_of_Orde.html |url-status= dead }}</ref>) organised [[Special Night Squads]] of British soldiers and Jewish volunteers such as [[Yigal Alon]]; these "scored significant successes against the Arab rebels in the lower Galilee and in the Jezreel valley"<ref>{{harvnb|Black|1991|p= 14}}</ref> by conducting raids on Arab villages.<ref>{{harvnb|Shapira|1992|pp=247, 249, 350}}</ref> [[Irgun]], a Jewish militia group, used violence also against Arab civilians as "retaliatory acts",<ref name=Irgun>{{cite book |title=Holy War in Judaism: The Fall and Rise of a Controversial Idea |publisher=Oxford University Press |author=Firestone, Reuven |year=2012 |page=192 |isbn=978-0-19-986030-2 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=EHyqYbTM-dwC&q=Irgun+%22retaliatory+acts%22&pg=PA192}}</ref> [[List of Irgun attacks during the 1930s|attacking marketplaces and buses]]. By the time the revolt concluded in March 1939, more than {{formatnum:5000}} Arabs, 400 Jews, and 200 British had been killed and at least {{formatnum:15000}} Arabs were wounded.<ref name=HistoryOfPalestinianRevolts>{{cite web|url=http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/9A489B74-6477-4E67-9C22-0F53A3CC9ADF.htm |title=Aljazeera: The history of Palestinian revolts |access-date=15 December 2005 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051215061527/http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/9A489B74-6477-4E67-9C22-0F53A3CC9ADF.htm |archive-date=15 December 2005 }}</ref> In total, 10% of the adult Arab male population was killed, wounded, imprisoned, or exiled.<ref>{{harvnb|Khalidi|2001|p=26}}</ref> From 1936 to 1945, while establishing collaborative security arrangements with the Jewish Agency, the British confiscated {{formatnum:13200}} firearms from Arabs and 521 weapons from Jews.{{sfn|Khalidi|1987|p=845}} The attacks on the Jewish population by Arabs had three lasting effects: firstly, they led to the formation and development of Jewish underground militias, primarily the [[Haganah]], which were to prove decisive in 1948. Secondly, it became clear that the two communities could not be reconciled, and the idea of partition was born. Thirdly, the British responded to Arab opposition with the [[White Paper of 1939]], which severely restricted Jewish land purchase and immigration. However, with the advent of the [[Second World War]], even this reduced immigration quota was not reached. The White Paper policy itself radicalised segments of the Jewish population, who after the war would no longer cooperate with the British. The revolt had also a negative effect on Palestinian Arab leadership, social cohesion, and military capabilities, and it contributed to the outcome of the 1948 War because "when the Palestinians faced their most fateful challenge in 1947–49, they were still suffering from the British repression of 1936–39, and were in effect without a unified leadership. Indeed, it might be argued that they were virtually without any leadership at all."{{sfn|Khalidi|2001|p=28}} ====Partition proposals==== [[File:Jewish protest demonstrations against Palestine White Paper, May 18, 1939. King George Ave, Jerusalem.jpg|thumb|Jewish demonstration against White Paper in Jerusalem in 1939]] In 1937, the [[Peel Commission]] proposed a partition between a small Jewish state, whose Arab population would have to be transferred, and an Arab state to be attached to the [[Emirate of Transjordan]], this emirate also being part of the wider [[Mandate for Palestine]]. The proposal was rejected outright by the Arabs. The two main Jewish leaders, [[Chaim Weizmann]] and [[David Ben-Gurion]], had convinced the [[World Zionist Congress|Zionist Congress]] to equivocally approve the Peel recommendations as a basis for more negotiation.<ref name=Louis>Louis, William Roger (2006). [https://books.google.com/books?id=NQnpQNKeKKAC ''Ends of British Imperialism: The Scramble for Empire, Suez, and Decolonization''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221128022458/https://books.google.com/books/about/Ends_of_British_Imperialism.html?id=NQnpQNKeKKAC&redir_esc=y |date=28 November 2022 }}, p. 391.</ref><ref name=Morris66>Morris, Benny (2009). ''One State, Two States: Resolving the Israel/Palestine Conflict'', p. 66</ref><ref name=Morris48>{{cite book |last= Morris |first= Benny |author-link= Benny Morris |title= The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited |pages= 11, 48, 49 |publisher= Cambridge University Press |year= 2004 |orig-year= 1988 |isbn= 978-0-521-00967-6 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C |access-date= 12 February 2022}} p. 11 "while the Zionist movement, after much agonising, accepted the principle of partition and the proposals as a basis for negotiation"; p. 49 "In the end, after bitter debate, the Congress equivocally approved—by a vote of 299 to 160—the Peel recommendations as a basis for further negotiation."</ref><ref>'Zionists Ready To Negotiate British Plan As Basis', ''The Times'' Thursday, 12 August 1937; p. 10; Issue 47761; col B.</ref><ref>Eran, Oded (2002). "Arab-Israel Peacemaking." ''The Continuum Political Encyclopedia of the Middle East''. Ed. [[Avraham Sela]]. New York: Continuum, p. 122.</ref> In [[1937 Ben-Gurion letter|a letter to his son in October 1937]], Ben-Gurion explained that partition would be a first step to "possession of the land as a whole".<ref>[http://www.palestineremembered.com/download/B-G%20LetterTranslation.pdf Letter from David Ben-Gurion to his son Amos, written 5 October 1937] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190512101840/http://www.palestineremembered.com/download/B-G%20LetterTranslation.pdf |date=12 May 2019 }}, Obtained from the Ben-Gurion Archives in Hebrew, and translated into English by the [[Institute of Palestine Studies]], Beirut</ref><ref>{{citation|last=Morris|first=Benny|author-link=Benny Morris|title= Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist-Arab Conflict, 1881–1998|publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group|year=2011|isbn=978-0-307-78805-4|page=138}} Quote: "No Zionist can forgo the smallest portion of the Land Of Israel. [A] Jewish state in part [of Palestine] is not an end, but a beginning ….. Our possession is important not only for itself … through this we increase our power, and every increase in power facilitates getting hold of the country in its entirety. Establishing a [small] state …. will serve as a very potent lever in our historical effort to redeem the whole country"</ref><ref name=Finkelstein208>{{citation|title=Beyond Chutzpah: On the Misuse of Anti-semitism and the Abuse of History|first=Norman|last=Finkelstein|publisher=University of California Press|year=2005|isbn=978-0-520-24598-3|page=280|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xmi2Yw0QzN8C&pg=PA280}}</ref> The same sentiment was recorded by Ben-Gurion on other occasions, such as at a meeting of the Jewish Agency executive in June 1938,<ref>Quote from a meeting of the Jewish Agency executive in June 1938: "[I am] satisfied with part of the country, but on the basis of the assumption that after we build up a strong force following the establishment of the state, we will abolish the partition of the country and we will expand to the whole Land of Israel." in<br />{{citation|title=Expulsion of the Palestinians: The Concept of "Transfer" in Zionist Political Thought, 1882–1948|first=Nur|last=Masalha|publisher=Inst for Palestine Studies|year=1992|isbn=978-0-88728-235-5|page=[https://archive.org/details/expulsionofpales00masa/page/107 107]|url=https://archive.org/details/expulsionofpales00masa/page/107}}; and {{harvnb|Segev|2000|p=[https://archive.org/details/onepalestinecomp00sege/page/403 403]}}</ref> as well as by Chaim Weizmann.<ref name=Finkelstein208/><ref>From a letter from Chaim Weizmann to [[General (United Kingdom)|General]] [[Arthur Grenfell Wauchope|Sir Arthur G. Wauchope]], [[High Commissioners for Palestine and Transjordan|High Commissioner for Palestine]], while the Peel Commission was convening in 1937: "We shall spread in the whole country in the course of time ….. this is only an arrangement for the next 25 to 30 years." {{citation|title=Expulsion of the Palestinians: The Concept of "Transfer" in Zionist Political Thought, 1882–1948|first=Nur|last=Masalha|publisher=Inst for Palestine Studies|year=1992|isbn=978-0-88728-235-5|page=[https://archive.org/details/expulsionofpales00masa/page/62 62]|url=https://archive.org/details/expulsionofpales00masa/page/62}}</ref> Following the [[London Conference of 1939|London Conference]] in February and March 1939, the British Government published a [[1939 White Paper|White Paper]] which proposed a limit to Jewish immigration from Europe, restrictions on Jewish land purchases, and a programme for creating an independent state to replace the Mandate within ten years. This was seen by the ''[[Yishuv]]'' as betrayal of the mandatory terms, especially in light of the increasing persecution of Jews in Europe. In response, Zionists organised ''[[Aliyah Bet]]'', a programme of illegal immigration into Palestine. [[Lehi (group)|Lehi]], a small group of extremist Zionists, staged armed attacks on British authorities in Palestine. However, the [[Jewish Agency]], which represented the mainstream Zionist leadership and most of the Jewish population, still hoped to persuade Britain to allow resumed Jewish immigration and cooperated with Britain during the [[Second World War]]. ===Second World War=== ====Allied and Axis activity==== [[File:060 1942 - Tom Beazley's mates (l to r) George Dobner, Norm Grainger ^ Reg Shephard at Tel-Aviv, Pales.jpg|thumb|Australian soldiers in [[Tel Aviv]] in 1942]] On 10 June 1940, during the [[Second World War]], the [[Kingdom of Italy]] declared war on the [[British Empire]] and sided with [[Nazi Germany]]. Within a month, the Italians [[Italian bombings on Palestine in World War II|attacked Palestine from the air]], bombing [[Tel Aviv]] and [[Haifa]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.isracast.com/article.aspx?ID=470&t=Why-Italian-Planes-Bombed-Tel-Aviv?|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921004629/http://www.isracast.com/article.aspx?ID=470&t=Why-Italian-Planes-Bombed-Tel-Aviv%3F|url-status=dead|title=Why Italian Planes Bombed Tel-Aviv?|archivedate=21 September 2011}}</ref> inflicting multiple casualties. In 1942, there was a period of great concern for the ''[[Yishuv]]'', when the German forces of General [[Erwin Rommel]] advanced east across [[North Africa]] towards the [[Suez Canal]], raising a fear that they would conquer Palestine. This period was referred to as the "[[200 days of dread]]". This event was the direct cause for the founding, with British support, of the ''[[Palmach]]''<ref>[http://www.historycentral.com/Israel/1941PalmachFormed.html How the Palmach was formed] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212162717/https://www.historycentral.com/Israel/1941PalmachFormed.html |date=12 December 2019 }} (History Central)</ref> – a highly trained regular unit belonging to [[Haganah]] (a paramilitary group composed mostly of reserves). As in most of the Arab world, there was no unanimity amongst the Palestinian Arabs as to their position regarding the belligerents in the Second World War. A number of leaders and public figures saw an [[Axis powers|Axis]] victory as the likely outcome and a way of securing Palestine back from the Zionists and the British. Even though Arabs were not highly regarded by [[Nazism and race|Nazi racial theory]], the [[Nazis]] encouraged Arab support as a counter to British hegemony.<ref>Secret World War II documents released by the UK in July 2001, include documents on [[Operation ATLAS]] (See [http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/documents/july2001.pdf References: KV 2/400–402] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140402042324/http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/documents/july2001.pdf|date=2 April 2014}}. A German task force led by [[Kurt Wieland]] parachuted into Palestine in September 1944. This was one of the last German efforts in the region to attack the Jewish community in Palestine and undermine British rule by supplying local Arabs with cash, arms and sabotage equipment. The team was captured shortly after landing.</ref> On the anniversary of the Balfour Declaration in 1943, ''[[Reichsführer-SS]]'' [[Heinrich Himmler]] and Foreign Minister [[Joachim von Ribbentrop]] sent telegrams of support for the [[Grand Mufti of Jerusalem]], [[Mohammad Amin al-Husseini]], to read out for a radio broadcast to a rally of supporters in [[Berlin]].{{efn|From Himmler: {{blockquote|The National Socialist movement of Greater Germany has, since its inception, inscribed upon its flag the fight against the world Jewry. It has therefore followed with particular sympathy the struggle of freedom-loving Arabs, especially in Palestine, against Jewish interlopers. In the recognition of this enemy and of the common struggle against it lies the firm foundation of the natural alliance that exists between the National Socialist Greater Germany and the freedom-loving Muslims of the whole world. In this spirit I am sending you on the anniversary of the infamous Balfour declaration my hearty greetings and wishes for the successful pursuit of your struggle until the final victory.}} From Ribbentrop: {{blockquote|I am sending my greetings to your eminence and to the participants of the meeting held today in the Reich capital under your chairmanship. Germany is linked to the Arab nation by old ties of friendship, and today we are united more than ever before. The elimination of the socalled Jewish national home and the liberation of all Arab countries from the oppression and exploitation of the Western powers is an unchangeable part of the Great German Reich policy. Let the hour not be far off when the Arab nation will be able to build its future and find unity in full independence.}}}}<ref>{{cite book|author =Moshe Pearlman|author-link=Moshe Pearlman|title=Mufti of Jerusalem; the story of Haj Amin el Husseini|date=1947|publisher=V. Gollancz|page=50}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Rolf Steininger|title=Germany and the Middle East: From Kaiser Wilhelm II to Angela Merkel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wm58DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA55|date=17 December 2018|publisher=Berghahn Books|isbn=978-1-78920-039-3|pages=55–}}</ref> On the other hand, as many as 12,000 Palestinian Arabs, with the endorsement of many prominent figures such as the mayors of [[Nablus]] and [[Gaza City|Gaza]] and media such as "Radio Palestine"{{efn|For example, Radio Palestine broadcast the comments of an Egyptian writer who said, "The war is between the lofty and humane values represented by England and the forces of darkness represented by the Nazis."<ref name="Aderet"/>}} and the prominent [[Jaffa]]-based ''[[Falastin]]'' newspaper{{efn|A British recruiting poster in Arabic, published in the ''[[Falastin]]'' newspaper in January 1942, read: "She couldn't stop thinking about contribution and sacrifice, she felt ongoing pride and exaltation of spirit – when she did what she saw as her sacred duty for her nation and its sons. When your country is crying out to you and asking for your service, when your country makes it plain that our Arab men need your love and support, and when your country reminds you of how cruel the enemy is – when your country is calling you, can you stand by and do nothing?"<ref name="Aderet"/>}}, volunteered to join and fight for the British, with many serving in units that also included Jews from Palestine. 120 Palestinian women also served as part of the "Auxiliary Territorial Service". However, this history has been less studied, as Israeli sources put more focus in studying the role played by Jewish soldiers, and Palestinian sources "were not eager to glorify the names of those who cooperated with Britain not so many years after the British put down the Arab Revolt of 1936-1939, and thereby indirectly helped the Jews establish a state."<ref name="Aderet">Aderet, Ofer. "12,000 Palestinians Fought for U.K. in WWII alongside Jewish Volunteers, Historian Finds." Haaretz.com. Haaretz, May 31, 2019. [https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium-historian-12-000-palestinians-fought-for-u-k-in-wwii-alongside-jewish-volunteers-1.7309369 Link] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220327131018/https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium-historian-12-000-palestinians-fought-for-u-k-in-wwii-alongside-jewish-volunteers-1.7309369 |date=27 March 2022 }}.</ref> ====Mobilisation==== [[File:JB HQ.jpg|thumb|[[Jewish Brigade]] headquarters under the [[Union Flag]] and [[Flag of Israel|Jewish flag]]]] On 3 July 1944, the British government consented to the establishment of a [[Jewish Brigade]] within the [[British Army]], with hand-picked Jewish and also non-Jewish senior officers. On 20 September 1944, an official communiqué by the [[War Office]] announced the formation of the Jewish Brigade Group of the British Army. The Jewish Brigade then was stationed in [[Tarvisio]], near the border triangle of Italy, [[Yugoslavia]], and Austria, where it played a key role in the [[Berihah]]'s efforts to help Jews escape Europe for Palestine, a role many of its members would continue after the brigade was disbanded. Among its projects was the education and care of the [[Selvino children]]. Later, veterans of the Jewish Brigade were to play a major role in the foundation of the [[Israel Defense Forces]] (IDF). From the Palestine Regiment, two platoons, one Jewish, under the command of [[Brigadier (United Kingdom)|Brigadier]] [[Ernest Benjamin]], and another Arab, were sent to join Allied forces on the [[Italian Campaign (World War II)|Italian Front]], having taken part in the [[Spring 1945 offensive in Italy|final offensive]] there. Besides Jews and Arabs from Palestine, in total by mid-1944 the British had assembled a multiethnic force consisting of volunteer European Jewish refugees (from German-occupied countries), [[Yemenite Jews]] and [[Beta Israel|Abyssinian Jews]].<ref>Corrigan, Gordon. ''The Second World War'' Thomas Dunne Books, 2011 {{ISBN|978-0-312-57709-4}} p. 523, last paragraph</ref> ====The Holocaust and immigration quotas==== [[File:Hagana Ship - Jewish State at Haifa Port (1947).jpg|thumb|''Jewish State'' ship, one of several Haganah ships that carried Jewish immigrants from Europe, mostly illegal, at the [[Port of Haifa|Haifa Port]], Mandatory Palestine, 1947<ref name="JIJI"/>]] In 1939, as a consequence of the [[White Paper of 1939]], the British reduced the number of immigrants allowed into Palestine. The [[Second World War]] and the [[Holocaust]] started shortly thereafter and once the 15,000 annual quota was exceeded, Jews fleeing [[Nazi]] persecution were interned in detention camps or deported to places such as [[British Mauritius|Mauritius]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Lenk |first=RS |title=The Mauritius Affair, The Boat People of 1940–41 |location=London |publisher=R Lenk |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-9518805-2-4}}</ref> Starting in 1939, a clandestine immigration effort called ''[[Aliya Bet]]'' was spearheaded by an organisation called [[Mossad LeAliyah Bet]]. Tens of thousands of European Jews escaped the Nazis in boats and small ships headed for Palestine. The British [[Royal Navy]] intercepted many of the vessels; others were unseaworthy and were wrecked; a [[Haganah]] bomb sunk the {{SS|Patria|1913|6}}, killing 267 people; two other ships were sunk by [[Shchuka-class submarine|Soviet submarines]]: the motor [[schooner]] {{MV|Struma||2}} was [[Struma disaster|torpedoed and sunk]] in the [[Black Sea]] by a Soviet submarine in February 1942 with the loss of nearly 800 lives.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jewishgen.org/databases/holocaust/0140_Struma.html#P9 |last=Aroni |first=Samuel |title=Who Perished on the Struma And How Many? |year=2002–2007 |publisher=JewishGen.org}}</ref> The last refugee boats to try to reach Palestine during the war were the ''Bulbul'', {{MV|Mefküre||2}} and ''Morina'' in August 1944. A Soviet submarine sank the motor schooner ''Mefküre'' by torpedo and shellfire and machine-gunned survivors in the water,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://flot.sevastopol.info/ship/podlodki/shya215.htm |script-title=ru:Подводная лодка "Щ-215" |website=Черноморский Флот информационный ресурс |language=ru |date=2000–2013 |access-date=27 March 2013}}</ref> killing between 300 and 400 refugees.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wertheimer.info/family/GRAMPS/Haapalah/plc/2/7/bea98dbf1dc6d1a1772.html |title=מפקורה SS Mefküre Mafkura Mefkura |website=Haapalah Aliyah Bet Database|date=27 September 2011 |access-date=26 March 2013}}</ref> Illegal immigration resumed after the end of the Second World War, especially by the Haganah, who carried mostly illegal Jewish immigrants in the period 1945-47.<ref name="JIJI">{{cite journal|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4467083|title=United States: British Collaboration on Illegal Immigration to Palestine, 1945-1947|journal=Miriam Joyce Haron|accessdate=6 December 2023|year=1980|publisher=JSTOR|jstor=4467083 }}</ref> After the war, 250,000 Jewish refugees were stranded in displaced persons (DP) camps in Europe. Despite the pressure of world opinion, in particular the repeated requests of the [[U.S. President]], [[Harry S. Truman]], and the recommendations of the [[Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry]] that 100,000 Jews be immediately granted entry to Palestine, the British maintained the ban on immigration. ====Beginning of Zionist insurgency==== [[File:VE day Jerusalem 1945.jpg|thumb|Jerusalem on [[VE Day]], 8 May 1945]] The Jewish [[Lehi (group)|Lehi (Fighters for the Freedom of Israel)]] and [[Irgun|Irgun (National Military Organisation)]] movements initiated [[Jewish insurgency in Palestine|violent uprisings]] against the British Mandate in the 1940s. On 6 November 1944, [[Eliyahu Hakim]] and [[Eliyahu Bet Zuri]] (members of Lehi) assassinated [[Walter Edward Guinness, 1st Baron Moyne|Lord Moyne]] in [[Cairo]]. Moyne was the British Minister of State for the Middle East and the assassination is said by some to have turned British Prime Minister [[Winston Churchill]] against the Zionist cause. After the assassination of Lord Moyne, the [[Haganah]] kidnapped, interrogated, and turned over to the British many members of the Irgun ("[[The Hunting Season]]"), and the Jewish Agency Executive decided on a series of measures against "terrorist organisations" in Palestine.<ref>[https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/season.html The "Hunting Season" (1945)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160527054031/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/season.html |date=27 May 2016 }} by Yehuda Lapidot ([[Jewish Virtual Library]])</ref> Irgun ordered its members not to resist or retaliate with violence, so as to prevent a civil war. ===After the Second World War: Insurgency and the Partition Plan=== {{main|1947 UN Partition Plan|1947–1948 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine}} The three main Jewish underground forces later united to form the [[Jewish Resistance Movement]] and carry out several attacks and bombings against the British administration. In 1946, the Irgun blew up the [[King David Hotel bombing|King David Hotel]] in Jerusalem, the southern wing of which was the headquarters of the British administration, killing 92 people. Following the bombing, the British Government began interning [[Jews in British camps on Cyprus|illegal Jewish immigrants in Cyprus]]. In 1948, the Lehi assassinated [[Count]] [[Folke Bernadotte|Bernadotte]], the UN mediator, in Jerusalem. [[Yitzak Shamir]], a future [[Prime Minister of Israel]], was one of the conspirators. [[File:UN Partition Plan For Palestine 1947.svg|thumb|upright|The UN Partition Plan]] The negative publicity resulting from the situation in Palestine caused the Mandate to become widely unpopular in Britain itself and caused the [[United States Congress]] to delay granting the British vital loans for reconstruction. The British [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] had promised before its election in 1945 to allow mass Jewish migration into Palestine but reneged on this promise once in office. Anti-British Jewish militancy increased, and the situation required the presence of over 100,000 British troops in the country. Following the Acre Prison Break and the retaliatory hanging of British sergeants by the Irgun, the British announced their desire to terminate the mandate and to withdraw by no later than the beginning of August 1948.<ref name="auto"/> The [[Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry]] in 1946 was a joint attempt by Britain and the United States to agree on a policy regarding the admission of Jews to Palestine. In April, the Committee reported that its members had arrived at a unanimous decision. The Committee approved the American recommendation of the immediate acceptance of 100,000 Jewish refugees from Europe into Palestine. It also recommended that there be no Arab or Jewish state. The Committee stated that "in order to dispose, once and for all, of the exclusive claims of Jews and Arabs to Palestine, we regard it as essential that a clear statement of principle should be made that Jew shall not dominate Arab and Arab shall not dominate Jew in Palestine". U.S. President [[Harry S. Truman]] angered the British Government by issuing a statement supporting the 100,000 refugees but refusing to acknowledge the rest of the committee's findings. Britain had asked for U.S. assistance in implementing the recommendations. The [[US War Department]] had said earlier that to assist Britain in maintaining order against an Arab revolt, an open-ended US commitment of 300,000 troops would be necessary. The immediate admission of 100,000 new Jewish immigrants would almost certainly have provoked an Arab uprising.<ref>Kenneth Harris, '' Attlee'' (1982) pp 388–400. </ref> These events were the decisive factors that forced Britain to announce their desire to terminate the Palestine Mandate and place the Question of Palestine before the [[United Nations]], the successor to the [[League of Nations]]. The UN created [[UNSCOP]] (the UN Special Committee on Palestine) on 15 May 1947, with representatives from 11 countries. UNSCOP conducted hearings and made a general survey of the situation in Palestine and issued its report on 31 August. Seven members (Canada, [[Czechoslovakia]], Guatemala, Netherlands, Peru, Sweden, and Uruguay) recommended the creation of independent Arab and Jewish states, with Jerusalem to be placed under [[Corpus separatum (Jerusalem)|international administration]]. Three members (India, Iran, and [[Yugoslavia]]) supported the creation of a single federal state containing both Jewish and Arab constituent states. Australia abstained.<ref>Howard Adelman, "UNSCOP and the Partition Recommendation." (Centre for Refugee Studies, York University, 2009) [http://yorkspace.library.yorku.ca/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10315/2669/H+A+UNSCOP+and+the+Partition+Recommendation.PDF?sequence=1 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191219184223/https://yorkspace.library.yorku.ca/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10315/2669/H+A+UNSCOP+and+the+Partition+Recommendation.PDF?sequence=1 |date=19 December 2019 }}.</ref> {{rquote|It is not hard to understand the Palestinian Arab position. By 1947 the Arabs of Palestine constituted a two-thirds majority with over 1.2 million people, compared to 600,000 Jews in Palestine. Many towns and cities with Palestinian Arab majorities, like [[Haifa]], were allotted to the Jewish state. [[Jaffa]], though nominally part of the Arab state, was an isolated enclave surrounded by the Jewish state. Moreover, Arabs owned 94 percent of the total land area of Palestine and some 80 percent of the arable farmland of the country. Based on these facts, Palestinian Arabs refused to confer on the United Nations the authority to split their country and give half away.|[[Eugene Rogan]], The Arabs: A History<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LILdBDrm-ksC&q=eugene+rogan+history+of+arabs|title=The Arabs: A History – Third Edition|author=Eugene Rogan|page=321|publisher=Penguin|year=2012|isbn=978-0-7181-9683-7 }}}</ref>}} On 29 November 1947, [[United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine|the UN General Assembly, voting 33 to 13, with 10 abstentions, adopted a resolution]] recommending the adoption and implementation of the ''Plan of Partition with Economic Union'' as Resolution 181 (II),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://domino.un.org/unispal.nsf/0/7f0af2bd897689b785256c330061d253 |title=A/RES/181(II) of 29 November 1947 |publisher=United Nations |year=1947 |access-date=11 January 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120524094913/http://domino.un.org/unispal.nsf/0/7f0af2bd897689b785256c330061d253 |archive-date=24 May 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Cathy Hartley|author2=Paul Cossali|title=Survey of Arab-Israeli Relations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KvaNAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA52|year=2004|pages=52–53|publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-35527-2}}</ref> while making some adjustments to the boundaries between the two states proposed by it. The division was to take effect on the date of British withdrawal. The partition plan required that the proposed states grant full civil rights to all people within their borders, regardless of race, religion or gender. The UN General Assembly is only granted the power to make recommendations; therefore, UNGAR 181 was not legally binding.<ref>Article 11 of the United Nations Charter</ref> Both the US and the [[Soviet Union]] supported the resolution. Haiti, Liberia, and the Philippines changed their votes at the last moment after concerted pressure from the US and from Zionist organisations.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Roosevelt |first=Kermit |year=1948 |title=The Partition of Palestine: A lesson in pressure politics |journal=Middle East Journal |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=1–16 |jstor=4321940 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Snetsinger |first=John |year=1974 |title=Truman, the Jewish vote, and the creation of Israel |url=https://archive.org/details/trumanjewishvote0000snet |url-access=registration |publisher=Hoover Institution |pages=[https://archive.org/details/trumanjewishvote0000snet/page/66 66–67]|isbn=978-0-8179-3391-3 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarsar |first=Saliba |year=2004 |title=The question of Palestine and United States behavior at the United Nations |journal=International Journal of Politics, Culture and Society |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=457–470 |doi=10.1023/B:IJPS.0000019613.01593.5e|s2cid=143484109 }}</ref> The five members of the [[Arab League]], who were voting members at the time, voted against the Plan. The Jewish Agency, which was the Jewish state-in-formation, accepted the plan, and nearly all the Jews in Palestine rejoiced at the news. The partition plan was rejected by the Palestinian Arab leadership and by most of the Arab population.{{efn|p. 50, at 1947 "Haj Amin al-Husseini went one better: he denounced also the minority report, which, in his view, legitimized the Jewish foothold in Palestine, a "partition in disguise", as he put it."; p. 66, at 1946 "The League demanded independence for Palestine as a "unitary" state, with an Arab majority and minority rights for the Jews. The AHC went one better and insisted that the proportion of Jews to Arabs in the unitary state should stand at one to six, meaning that only Jews who lived in Palestine before the British Mandate be eligible for citizenship"; p. 67, at 1947 "The League's Political Committee met in Sofar, Lebanon, on 16–19 September, and urged the Palestine Arabs to fight partition, which it called "aggression", "without mercy". The League promised them, in line with Bludan, assistance "in manpower, money and equipment" should the United Nations endorse partition."; p. 72, at Dec 1947 "The League vowed, in very general language, "to try to stymie the partition plan and prevent the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine,"<ref>{{cite book |author=Morris, Benny |title=1948: a history of the first Arab-Israeli war |year=2008 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-12696-9 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=J5jtAAAAMAAJ |access-date=24 July 2013}}</ref>}}{{efn|"The Arabs rejected the United Nations Partition Plan so that any comment of theirs did not specifically concern the status of the Arab section of Palestine under partition but rather rejected the scheme in its entirety."<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/4ECBF3578B6149C50525657100507FAB |title=UNITED NATIONS CONCILIATION COMMISSION FOR PALESTINE A/AC.25/W/19 30 July 1949: (Working paper prepared by the Secretariat) |access-date=24 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002103014/http://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/4ECBF3578B6149C50525657100507FAB |archive-date=2 October 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref>}} Meeting in [[Cairo]] on November and December 1947, the Arab League then adopted a series of resolutions endorsing a military solution to the conflict. Britain announced that it would accept the partition plan, but refused to enforce it, arguing it was not accepted by the Arabs. Britain also refused to share the administration of Palestine with the UN Palestine Commission during the transitional period. In September 1947, the British government announced that the Mandate for Palestine would end at midnight on 14 May 1948.<ref name=Britannica>[http://school.eb.com/eb/article-45071 "Palestine"]. Encyclopædia Britannica Online School Edition, 2006. 15 May 2006.</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopaedia |author=Stefan Brooks |editor=Spencer C. Tucker |encyclopaedia=The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict |title=Palestine, British Mandate for |year=2008 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |volume=3 |location=Santa Barbara, California |isbn=978-1-85109-842-2 |page=770}}</ref><ref name=Sherman>{{cite book |title=Mandate Days: British Lives in Palestine, 1918–1948 |publisher=The Johns Hopkins University Press |author=A. J. Sherman |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-8018-6620-3}}</ref> Some Jewish organisations also opposed the proposal. [[Irgun]] leader [[Menachem Begin]] announced, "The partition of the Homeland is illegal. It will never be recognised. The signature by institutions and individuals of the partition agreement is invalid. It will not bind the Jewish people. Jerusalem was and will forever be our capital. Eretz Israel will be restored to the people of Israel. All of it. And for ever."<ref>{{cite web |title=The Revolt |author=Menachem Begin |year=1977 |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/defense.html#_ednref37}}</ref> ===Termination of the mandate=== {{See also|End of the British Mandate for Palestine}} [[File:BritsLvHaifa3061948.jpg|thumb|British troops leaving [[Haifa]] in 1948]] When the United Kingdom announced the independence of the [[Emirate of Transjordan]] as the [[Jordan|Hashemite Kingdom of Transjordan]] in 1946, the final Assembly of the League of Nations and the General Assembly both adopted resolutions welcoming the news.<ref>See ''Mandates, Dependencies and Trusteeship'', by H. Duncan Hall, Carnegie Endowment, 1948, pp. 266–267.</ref> The Jewish Agency objected, claiming that Transjordan was an integral part of Palestine, and that according to Article 80 of the [[UN Charter]], the Jewish people had a secured interest in its territory.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mandate is Indivisble |website=Historical Jewish Press, Tel Aviv University, Palestine Post |date=9 April 1946 |page=3 |url=http://www.jpress.org.il/publications/PPost-en.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100929150945/http://www.jpress.org.il/publications/PPost-en.asp |archive-date=29 September 2010 }}</ref> During the General Assembly deliberations on Palestine, there were suggestions that it would be desirable to incorporate part of Transjordan's territory into the proposed Jewish state. A few days before the adoption of [[Resolution 181]] (II) on 29 November 1947, US Secretary of State Marshall noted frequent references had been made by the Ad Hoc Committee regarding the desirability of the Jewish State having both the [[Negev]] and an "outlet to the Red Sea and the Port of Aqaba".<ref>{{cite web |website=Foreign relations of the United States |year=1947 |title=The Near East and Africa |volume=V |page=1255 |url=http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=goto&id=FRUS.FRUS1947v05&isize=M&submit=Go+to+page&page=1255}}</ref> According to John Snetsinger, Chaim Weizmann visited President Truman on 19 November 1947 and said it was imperative that the Negev and Port of Aqaba be within the Jewish state.<ref>{{cite book |last=Snetsinger |first=John |title=Truman, the Jewish vote, and the creation of Israel |publisher=Hoover Press |year=1974 |isbn=978-0-8179-3391-3 |pages=60–61|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JAW2aHnkL4UC&pg=PA60}}</ref> Truman telephoned the US delegation to the UN and told them he supported Weizmann's position.<ref>{{cite web |website=United States Department of State, Foreign relations of the United States |title=The Near East and Africa, Volume V (1947) |page=1271 |url=http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=goto&id=FRUS.FRUS1947v05&isize=M&submit=Go+to+page&page=1271}}</ref> However, the [[Trans-Jordan memorandum]] excluded territories of the Emirate of Transjordan from any Jewish settlement.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=ATQQ0FMS1FQC&pg=PA348 ''The British Empire in the Middle East, 1945–1951''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221128023422/https://books.google.com/books?id=ATQQ0FMS1FQC&pg=PA348 |date=28 November 2022 }}, p. 348. William Roger Louis, Clarendon Press, 1984</ref> Immediately after the UN resolution, [[1947-1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine|civil war]] broke out between the Arab and Jewish communities, and British authority began to break down. On 16 December 1947, the [[Palestine Police Force]] withdrew from the [[Tel Aviv]] area, home to more than half the Jewish population, and turned over responsibility for the maintenance of law and order to Jewish police.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jta.org/1947/12/16/archive/violence-ebbs-british-police-withdrawn-from-tel-aviv-and-its-environs|title=Violence Ebbs; British Police Withdrawn from Tel Aviv and Its Environs – Jewish Telegraphic Agency|website=www.jta.org|date=16 December 1947}}</ref> As the civil war raged on, British military forces gradually withdrew from Palestine, although they occasionally intervened in favour of either side. Many of these areas became war zones. The British maintained strong presences in [[Jerusalem]] and [[Haifa]], even as Jerusalem came under siege by Arab forces and became the scene of fierce fighting, though the British occasionally intervened in the fighting, largely to secure their evacuation routes, including by proclaiming martial law and enforcing truces. The [[Palestine Police Force]] was largely inoperative, and government services such as social welfare, water supplies, and postal services were withdrawn. In March 1948, all British judges in Palestine were sent back to Britain.<ref>{{cite book|author=Michael J Cohen|title=Britain's Moment in Palestine: Retrospect and Perspectives, 1917–1948|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DLPpAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA481|date=24 February 2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-91364-1|pages=481–}}</ref> In April 1948, the British withdrew from most of Haifa but retained an enclave in the port area to be used in the evacuation of British forces, and retained [[Ramat David Airbase|RAF Ramat David]], an airbase close to Haifa, to cover their retreat, leaving behind a volunteer police force to maintain order. The city was quickly captured by the [[Haganah]] in the [[Battle of Haifa (1948)|Battle of Haifa]]. After the victory, British forces in Jerusalem announced that they had no intention of overseeing any local administration but also that they would not permit actions that would hamper the safe and orderly withdrawal of their forces; military courts would try anybody who interfered.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jta.org/1948/04/23/archive/british-forces-in-jerusalem-alerter-following-haifa-victory-fear-haganah-raid-on-city|title=British Forces in Jerusalem Alerter Following Haifa Victory; Fear Haganah Raid on City – Jewish Telegraphic Agency|website=www.jta.org|date=23 April 1948}}</ref><ref name=hansard>{{cite web|url=https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/commons/1948/mar/10/palestine-bill|date=10 March 1948|title=PALESTINE BILL|website=[[Hansard|Parliamentary Debates (Hansard)]]}}</ref><ref>Herzog, Chaim and Gazit, Shlomo: ''The Arab-Israeli Wars: War and Peace in the Middle East from the 1948 War of Independence to the Present'', p. 46</ref> Although by this time British authority in most of Palestine had broken down, with most of the country in the hands of Jews or Arabs, the British air and sea blockade of Palestine remained in place. Although Arab volunteers were able to cross the borders between Palestine and the surrounding Arab states to join the fighting, the British did not allow the regular armies of the surrounding Arab states to cross into Palestine. The British had notified the UN of their intent to terminate the mandate not later than 1 August 1948.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://domino.un.org/unispal.nsf/561c6ee353d740fb8525607d00581829/7f0af2bd897689b785256c330061d253%21OpenDocument |title='U.N. Resolution 181 (II). Future Government of Palestine, Part 1-A, Termination of Mandate, Partition and Independence |access-date=20 May 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090207194949/http://domino.un.org/unispal.nsf/561c6ee353d740fb8525607d00581829/7f0af2bd897689b785256c330061d253%21OpenDocument |archive-date=7 February 2009 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/un/res181.htm U.N. Resolution 181 (II). Future Government of Palestine, Part 1-A, Termination of Mandate, Partition and Independence] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061029150108/http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/un/res181.htm |date=29 October 2006 }}.</ref> However, early in 1948, the United Kingdom announced its firm intention to end its mandate in Palestine on 15 May. In response, President [[Harry S. Truman]] made a [[Truman trusteeship proposal|statement on 25 March proposing UN trusteeship rather than partition]], stating that "unfortunately, it has become clear that the partition plan cannot be carried out at this time by peaceful means... unless emergency action is taken, there will be no public authority in Palestine on that date capable of preserving law and order. Violence and bloodshed will descend upon the Holy Land. Large-scale fighting among the people of that country will be the inevitable result".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mideastweb.org/trusteeship.htm|title=President Truman's Trusteeship Statement – 1948|website=www.mideastweb.org}}</ref> The [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|British Parliament]] passed the necessary legislation to terminate the Mandate with the Palestine Bill, which received [[Royal assent]] on 29 April 1948.<ref name=Northey>{{cite book |author= Northey, Ruth (project ed.) |publisher= Bloomsbury Publishing |title= Whitaker's Britain |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-4729-0305-1 |page=127 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=CXGuAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT127}}</ref> [[File:Flickr - Government Press Office (GPO) - Hoisting of the national flag during a special ceremony of elementary school children.jpg|thumb|200px|Hoisting of the Yishuv flag in Tel Aviv, 1 January 1948]] By 14 May 1948, the only British forces remaining in Palestine were in the Haifa area and in Jerusalem. On that same day, the British garrison in Jerusalem withdrew, and the last High Commissioner, [[General (United Kingdom)|General]] [[Alan Cunningham|Sir Alan Cunningham]], left the city for Haifa, where he was to leave the country by sea. The Jewish leadership, led by the future Prime Minister, David Ben-Gurion, [[Declaration of Independence (Israel)|declared the establishment]] of a Jewish State in [[Land of Israel|Eretz-Israel]], to be known as the [[State of Israel]],<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Peace+Process/Guide+to+the+Peace+Process/Declaration+of+Establishment+of+State+of+Israel.htm |title=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs: ''Declaration of Establishment of State of Israel: 14 May 1948'': Retrieved 10 April 2012 |access-date=9 April 2012 |archive-date=16 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116103234/http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Peace+Process/Guide+to+the+Peace+Process/Declaration+of+Establishment+of+State+of+Israel.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> on the afternoon of 14 May 1948 (5 Iyar 5708 in the [[Hebrew calendar]]), to come into effect at the moment of termination of the Mandate at midnight.<ref>Bier, Aharon, & Slae, Bracha, ''For the sake of Jerusalem'', Mazo Publishers, 2006, p. 49</ref><ref>[[s:Declaration of Independence (Israel)|''Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel'']], 14 May 1948.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=J. Sussmann |title=Law and Judicial Practice in Israel |journal=Journal of Comparative Legislation and International Law |volume=32 |year=1950|pages=29–31}}</ref> Also on the 14th, the Provisional Government of Israel asked the US Government for recognition, on the frontiers specified in the UN Plan for Partition.<ref name=Epstein>{{cite web|title=Copy of telegram from Epstein to Shertok|url=https://www.archives.gov.il/NR/rdonlyres/BD240CA5-379D-4FAE-81A8-069902AD1E7F/0/Truman3.pdf|publisher=Government of Israel|access-date=3 May 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131113183514/http://www.archives.gov.il/NR/rdonlyres/BD240CA5-379D-4FAE-81A8-069902AD1E7F/0/Truman3.pdf|archive-date=13 November 2013}}</ref> The United States immediately replied, recognizing "the provisional government as the de facto authority".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true&doc=83|title=Our Documents – Press Release Announcing U.S. Recognition of Israel (1948)|website=www.ourdocuments.gov|date=9 April 2021 }}</ref> At midnight on 14/15 May 1948, the Mandate for Palestine expired, and the State of Israel came into being. The Palestine Government formally ceased to exist, the status of British forces still in the process of withdrawal from Haifa changed to occupiers of foreign territory, the [[Palestine Police Force]] formally stood down and was disbanded, with the remaining personnel evacuated alongside British military forces, the British blockade of Palestine was lifted, and all those who had been [[Palestinian Citizenship Order, 1925|Palestinian citizens]] ceased to be [[British protected person]]s, with [[Mandatory Palestine passport]]s no longer giving British protection.<ref name=hansard/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jta.org/1948/03/26/archive/palestine-passports-cease-to-give-british-protection-after-may-govt-announces|title=Palestine Passports Cease to Give British Protection After May Govt. Announces – Jewish Telegraphic Agency|website=www.jta.org|date=26 March 1948}}</ref> The [[1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight]] took place both before and after the end of the Mandate.<ref>[[Nur-eldeen Masalha|Masalha, Nur]] (1992). "Expulsion of the Palestinians." Institute for Palestine Studies, this edition 2001, p. 175.</ref><ref name=Khalidi>Rashid (1997). p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bL9dfjYK2eMC&pg=PA21 21] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221128023459/https://books.google.com/books?id=bL9dfjYK2eMC&pg=PA21 |date=28 November 2022 }} "In 1948 half of Palestine's 1.4 million Arabs were uprooted from their homes and became refugees".</ref> Over the next few days, approximately 700 Lebanese, 1,876 Syrian, 4,000 Iraqi, and 2,800 Egyptian troops crossed over the borders into Palestine, starting the [[1948 Arab–Israeli War]].<ref>Appendix IX-B, 'The Arab Expeditionary Forces to Palestine, 15/5/48, Khalidi, 1971, p. 867.</ref> Around 4,500 Transjordanian troops, commanded partly by 38 British officers who had resigned their commissions in the British Army only weeks earlier, including overall commander, General [[John Bagot Glubb]], entered the [[Corpus separatum (Jerusalem)|Corpus separatum region encompassing Jerusalem and its environs]] (in response to the Haganah's [[Operation Kilshon]])<ref>Bayliss, 1999, p. 84.</ref> and moved into areas designated as part of the Arab state by the UN partition plan. The war, which was to last until 1949, would see Israel expand to encompass about 78% of the territory of the former British Mandate, with Transjordan seizing and subsequently annexing the [[West Bank]] and the [[Kingdom of Egypt]] seizing the [[Gaza Strip]]. With the end of the Mandate, the remaining British troops in Israel were concentrated in an enclave in the Haifa port area, through which they were being withdrawn, and at RAF Ramat David, which was maintained to cover the withdrawal. The British handed over RAF Ramat David to the Israelis on 26 May and on 30 June, the last British troops were evacuated from Haifa. The British flag was lowered from the administrative building of the Port of Haifa and the Israeli flag was raised in its place, and the Haifa port area was formally handed over to the Israeli authorities in a ceremony.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Cohen-Hattab|first=Kobi|title=Zionism's Maritime Revolution: The Yishuv's Hold on the Land of Israel's Sea and Shores, 1917–1948|isbn=978-3-11-063352-8|date=8 July 2019|publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pz_EDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA255}}</ref> Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. If you do not want your writing to be edited mercilessly, then do not submit it here. You are also promising us that you wrote this yourself, or copied it from a public domain or similar free resource (see Christianpedia:Copyrights for details). Do not submit copyrighted work without permission! Cancel Editing help (opens in new window) Discuss this page