Macau

== History ==
{{Main|History of Macau|History of China}}

During the [[Qin dynasty]] (221–206 BC), the region was under the jurisdiction of [[Panyu County]], [[Nanhai District|Nanhai Prefecture]] of the province of [[Guangdong]].<ref name="2018YearbookP483">{{harvnb|Macao Yearbook 2018|p=483}}.</ref><ref name="MinahanP169">{{harvnb|Minahan|2014|p=169}}.</ref> The region is first known to have been settled during the [[Han dynasty]].<ref>{{harvnb|Hao|2011|p=15}}.</ref> It was administratively part of [[Dongguan Prefecture]] in the [[Jin dynasty (266–420)|Jin dynasty]] (266–420&nbsp;AD), and alternated under the control of Nanhai and Dongguan in later dynasties. In 1152, during the [[Song dynasty]] (960–1279 AD), it was under the jurisdiction of the new [[Zhongshan|Xiangshan County]].<ref name="2018YearbookP483" /> In 1277, approximately 50,000 refugees fleeing the [[Mongol conquest of China]] settled in the coastal area.<ref name="MinahanP169" /><ref>{{harvnb|U.S. State Department Notes on Macau|1994|p=2}}</ref>

The first European visitor to reach China by sea was the explorer [[Jorge Álvares]], who arrived in 1513.<ref name="Hao10">{{harvnb|Hao|2011|p=10}}.</ref> Merchants first established a trading post in [[Hong Kong]] waters at [[Tamão]], present-day [[Tuen Mun]], beginning regular trade with nearby settlements in southern China.<ref name="Hao10" /> Military clashes between the Ming and Portuguese navies followed the expulsion of the Tamão traders in 1521.<ref name="HaoTamao">{{harvnb|Hao|2011|pp=11–12}}</ref> Despite the trade ban, Portuguese merchants continued to attempt to settle on other parts of the Pearl River estuary, finally settling on Macau.<ref name="HaoTamao" /> 

In their first attempts at obtaining trading posts by force, the Portuguese were defeated by the Ming Chinese at the [[Battle of Tunmen]] in [[Tamão]] (or [[Tuen Mun]]) in 1521, where the Portuguese lost two ships. They were also defeated at the [[Battle of Sincouwaan]] around [[Lantau Island]], where the Portuguese lost two more ships. Other defeats include [[Shuangyu]] in 1548, where several Portuguese were captured, and near [[Dongshan County]] in 1549, where two Portuguese junks and [[Galeote Pereira]] were captured. During these battles the Ming Chinese captured weapons from the defeated Portuguese which they reverse engineered and mass-produced in China. These included the [[matchlock]] [[musket]] [[arquebus]]es, which they named [[Gun control in China#History|bird guns]], and [[breech-loading swivel guns]], which they named as Folangji ([[Franks#Crusaders and other Western Europeans as "Franks"|Frankish]]) cannon because the Portuguese were known to the Chinese under the name of Franks at this time. 

The Portuguese later returned to China peacefully and presented themselves under the name Portuguese instead of Franks in the [[Luso-Chinese agreement (1554)]]. They rented Macau as a trading post from China by paying annual lease of hundreds of silver [[taels]] to Ming China.<ref>p. 343–344, Denis Crispin Twitchett, John King Fairbank, [https://books.google.com/books?id=tVhvh6ibLJcC&dq=Leonel+de+Sousa+Macau&pg=PA344 ''The Cambridge history of China, Volume 2''; Volume 8] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221213141214/https://books.google.com/books?id=tVhvh6ibLJcC&lpg=PA344&dq=Leonel%20de%20Sousa%20Macau&pg=PA344#v=onepage&q=Leonel%20de%20Sousa%20Macau&f=false |date=13 December 2022 }}, Cambridge University Press, 1978 {{ISBN|0521243335}}</ref> Luso-Canton trade relations were formally [[Luso-Chinese agreement (1554)|reestablished]] in 1554, and Portugal soon after acquired a permanent lease for Macau in 1557,<ref>{{harvnb|Wills|1998|pp=342–344}}</ref> agreeing to pay 500 taels of silver as annual land rent.<ref>{{harvnb|Chan|2003|p=496}}</ref>

Macau became a stopover on the [[sea lane]] that connected [[Japan]] with the wider world. The Portuguese could avoid the Pearl River and inched towards [[Quanzhou]] and [[Ningbo]]. But as they failed to establish trading relationships with the Chinese, the Portuguese focused on trade with Japan.<ref>{{cite book | author1= David Abulafia |title=The Boundless Sea: A Human History of the Oceans |publisher= Oxford University Press |year=2019 |page=638 |isbn=9780199934980 }}</ref> The [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Macau]] was created in 1576, and by 1583 the [[Municipal Council of Macau]] had been established to handle municipal affairs for the growing settlement.<ref name="Mendes10">{{harvnb|Mendes|2013|p=10}}.</ref>  Macau was at the peak of its prosperity as a major [[warehouse]] during the late 16th century, providing a crucial connection in exporting Chinese silk to Japan during the [[Nanban trade]] period.<ref>{{harvnb|Wills|1998|p=348}}</ref>

[[File:Nieuhof-Ambassade-vers-la-Chine-1665 0739.tif|thumb|right|Dutch ships firing their cannons in the waters of Macau, drawn in 1665]]
Although the Portuguese were initially prohibited from fortifying Macau or stockpiling weapons, the [[Fortaleza do Monte]] was constructed in response to [[Dutch–Portuguese War|frequent Dutch naval incursions]]. The Dutch attempted to take the city in the 1622 [[Battle of Macau]], but were repelled successfully by the Portuguese.<ref>{{harvnb|Garrett|2010|pp=11–13}}</ref> Macau entered a period of decline in the 1640s following a series of catastrophic events for the burgeoning colony: Portuguese access to trade routes was irreparably severed when [[Sakoku|Japan halted trade]] in 1639,<ref>{{harvnb|Lourido|2000|p=211}}</ref> and after the [[Portuguese Restoration War]] of 1640,<ref>{{harvnb|Porter|1993|p=8}}</ref> [[Portuguese Malacca]] fell to the Dutch in 1641.<ref>{{harvnb|Sit|Cremer|Wong|1991|p=10}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Hao|2011|p=21}}.</ref>

Maritime trade with China was banned in 1644 following the [[transition from Ming to Qing|Qing conquest]] under the ''[[Haijin]]'' policies. It was limited only to Macau on a lesser scale while the new dynasty focused on eliminating surviving [[Kingdom of Tungning|Ming loyalists]].<ref>{{harvnb|Zhihong|2006|p=8}}.</ref> While the [[Kangxi Emperor]] lifted the prohibition in 1684, China again restricted trade decades later under the [[Canton System]] in 1757.<ref>{{harvnb|Zhihong|2006|pp=8–10}}.</ref> Foreign ships were required to stop first at Macau before further proceeding to [[Guangzhou|Canton]].<ref>{{harvnb|de Sousa|2009|p=77}}.</ref> Qing authorities exercised a much greater role in governing the territory during this period; Chinese residents were subject to Qing courts and new construction had to be approved by the resident [[Mandarin (bureaucrat)|mandarin]] beginning in the 1740s.<ref>{{harvnb|de Sousa|2009|p=75}}.</ref> As the opium trade became more lucrative during the 18th century, Macau again became an important stopping point en route to China.<ref>{{harvnb|de Sousa|2009|pp=77–78}}.</ref>

[[File:China unknown artist early 19th C - Macao oil on canvas IMG 9411 Museum of Asian Civilisation.jpg|thumb|right|Macau in the early 19th century]]
Following the [[First Opium War]] and the establishment of [[British Hong Kong|Hong Kong]] by the British, Macau lost its role as a major port.<ref>{{harvnb|Sit|Cremer|Wong|1991|p=11}}.</ref> Firecracker and incense production, as well as tea and tobacco processing, were vital industries in the colony during this time.<ref>{{harvnb|Sit|Cremer|Wong|1991|p=12}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|de Sousa|2009|p=84}}.</ref> Portugal was able to capitalise on China's postwar weakness and assert its sovereignty; the [[Governor of Macau]] began refusing to pay China annual land rent for the colony in the 1840s,<ref name="deSousa79">{{harvnb|de Sousa|2009|p=79}}.</ref> and annexed [[Taipa]] and [[Coloane]], in 1851 and 1864, respectively.<ref>{{harvnb|Luke|2000|p=723}}.</ref> Portugal also occupied nearby [[Wanzai, Small Hengqin and Great Hengqin islands|Lapa]] and [[Hengqin|Montanha]].<ref name="deSousa79" /> But these were returned to China by 1887, when perpetual occupation rights over Macau were formalised in the [[Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Peking]]. This agreement also prohibited Portugal from ceding Macau without Chinese approval.<ref>{{harvnb|Luke|2000|pp=723–724}}.</ref> Despite occasional conflict between Cantonese authorities and the colonial government, Macau's status remained unchanged through the republican revolutions of both [[5 October 1910 revolution|Portugal in 1910]] and [[Xinhai Revolution|China in 1911]].<ref name="Chan2003Republic">{{harvnb|Chan|2003|pp=497–498}}.</ref> The [[Kuomintang]] further affirmed Portuguese jurisdiction in Macau when the Treaty of Peking was renegotiated in 1928.<ref name="Chan2003Republic" />

During the [[World War II|Second World War]], the [[Empire of Japan]] did not occupy the colony and generally respected [[Portugal during World War II|Portuguese neutrality]] in Macau. However, after Japanese troops captured a British cargo ship in Macau waters in 1943, Japan installed a group of government "advisors" as an alternative to military occupation. The territory largely avoided military action during the war except in 1945, when the United States ordered air raids on Macau after learning that the colonial government was preparing to sell aviation fuel to Japan. In 1950 the US paid Portugal more than US$20&nbsp;million in compensation for the damage during the war. <ref>{{harvnb|Garrett|2010|p=116}}.</ref>

Refugees from mainland China swelled the population as they fled from the [[Chinese Civil War]]. Access to a large workforce enabled Macau's economy to grow as the colony expanded its clothing and textiles manufacturing industry, developed its tourism industry, and legalised casino gaming.<ref>{{harvnb|Porter|1993|p=9}}.</ref> However, at the height of the [[Cultural Revolution]], residents dissatisfied with the colonial administration rioted in the 1966 [[12-3 incident]], in which 8 people were killed and more than 200 were injured. Portugal lost full control over the colony afterwards, and agreed to cooperate with the [[Chinese Communist Party]] in exchange for continued administration of Macau.<ref>{{harvnb|Chan|2003|p=498}}.</ref>

Following the 1974 [[Carnation Revolution]], Portugal formally relinquished Macau as an overseas province and acknowledged it as a "Chinese territory under Portuguese administration".<ref>{{harvnb|Sit|Cremer|Wong|1991|p=175}}.</ref> After China first concluded [[Sino-British Joint Declaration|arrangements on Hong Kong's future]] with the [[United Kingdom]], it entered negotiations with Portugal over Macau in 1986. 

These  concluded with the signing of the 1987 [[Joint Declaration on the Question of Macau]], in which Portugal agreed the handover of the colony in 1999 and China guaranteed Macau's political and economic systems for 50 years after the handover.<ref>{{harvnb|Mendes|2013|pp=7, 32}}.</ref> In the waning years of colonial rule, Macau rapidly urbanised and constructed large-scale infrastructure projects, including the [[Macau International Airport]] and a new [[Macau Container Port|container port]].<ref>{{harvnb|Porter|1993|pp=11–12}}.</ref> The [[Handover of Macau|handover of Macau]] was at midnight on 20 December 1999, after 442 years of Portuguese rule.<ref name="NYTHandover" />

Following the handover, Macau liberalised its casino industry (which previously operated under a government-licensed monopoly) to allow foreign investors, starting a new period of economic development. The regional economy grew by a double-digit annual growth rate from 2002 to 2014, making Macau one of the richest economies in the world on a per capita basis.<ref>{{harvnb|Li|2016|p=522}}.</ref> Political debates have centred on the region's jurisdictional independence and the central government's adherence of "[[one country, two systems]]". While issues such as [[Macau national security law|national security legislation]] have been controversial, Macanese residents generally have high levels of trust in the government.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/commentary/macau-china-one-country-two-systems-hong-kong-protest-xi-taiwan-12296344 |title=Commentary: Macau, China's other One Country, Two Systems model, seems to be working just fine |date=2 February 2020 |website=CNA |language=en |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200202125730/https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/commentary/macau-china-one-country-two-systems-hong-kong-protest-xi-taiwan-12296344 |archive-date=2 February 2020 |access-date=22 April 2020}}{{Dead link|date=September 2022}}</ref>
Kwong and Wong<ref>{{harvnb|Kwong|Wong|2017|pp=123–124}}</ref> explain this by comparing Macau to Hong Kong: "The case of Macau shows that the very small size of a 'microstate' helps central authorities to exercise political control, stifle political pluralism, and monopolize opinions, all of which strengthen regime persistence."