Lutheranism

==History==
{{Main|History of Lutheranism}}
{{Further|Reformation}}
[[File:Lucas Cranach d.Ä. - Martin Luther, 1528 (Veste Coburg).jpg|thumb|''Martin Luther'', a 1529 portrait of [[Martin Luther]] by [[Lucas Cranach the Elder]]]]
Lutheranism has its roots in the work of Martin Luther, who sought to reform the Western Church to what he considered a more biblical foundation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bethanylutheranvv.org/lutherans_started.html|title=Bethany Lutheran Ministries – Home|work=Bethany Lutheran Ministries|access-date=5 March 2015|archive-date=18 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118164526/http://www.bethanylutheranvv.org/lutherans_started.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090502220318/http://www.biblehistory.com/Lutheran.html Lutherans], Biblehistory.com</ref> The reaction of the government and church authorities to the international spread of his writings, beginning with the ''[[Ninety-five Theses]]'', divided [[Western Christianity]].<ref>MSN Encarta, s.v. "[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761561935/Lutheranism.html Lutheranism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090131191959/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761561935/Lutheranism.html|date=31 January 2009}}" by [[George Forell|George Wolfgang Forell]]; ''Christian Cyclopedia'', s.v. "[http://www.lcms.org/ca/www/cyclopedia/02/display.asp?t1=r&word=REFORMATION.LUTHERAN Reformation, Lutheran]" by Lueker, E. et al. [https://web.archive.org/web/20091029103835/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761561935/Lutheranism.html Archived] 2009-10-31. Lutherans believe that the Roman Catholic Church is [[Criticism of the Catholic Church#cite ref-47|not the same as the original Christian church]].</ref> During the Reformation, Lutheranism became the [[state religion]] of numerous states of northern [[Europe]], especially in [[northern Germany]], [[Scandinavia]] and the then-[[Livonian Order]]. Lutheran clergy became civil servants and the Lutheran churches became part of the state.<ref name=":0" />

===Spread to Northern Europe===
[[File:Gustav Vasa Bible 1541.jpg|thumb|The title page of the Swedish [[Gustav Vasa Bible]], translated by brothers [[Olaus Petri]] and [[Laurentius Petri]] and [[Laurentius Andreae]]|alt=]]
Lutheranism spread through all of [[History of Scandinavia|Scandinavia]] during the 16th century as the monarchs of [[Denmark–Norway#Origins of the Union|Denmark–Norway]] and [[Reformation in Sweden|Sweden]] adopted the faith. Through Baltic-German and Swedish rule, Lutheranism also spread into [[Estonia#Middle Ages|Estonia]] and [[Religion in Latvia#History|Latvia]]. It also began spreading into [[Lithuania proper|Lithuania Proper]] with practically all members of the Lithuanian nobility converting to Lutheranism or [[Calvinism]], but at the end of the 17th century Protestantism at large began losing support due to [[Counter-Reformation]] and [[religious persecution]]s.<ref>[https://istorijai.lt/kulturiniai-ir-tikybiniai-santykiai-xvi-amziuje/ ''<nowiki>Kultūriniai ir tikybiniai santykiai XVI amžiuje [The cultural and religious relations in the 16th century]</nowiki>''](in Lithuanian). Istorijai.lt. Original archived on 5 August 2018. Retrieved on 4 April 2023.</ref> In German-ruled [[Lithuania Minor]], however, Lutheranism remained to be the dominant branch of Christianity.<ref>[http://parodos.mab.lt/2018-02/reformacijos-pradzia-lietuvoje/liuteronybe-mazojoje-lietuvoje/ ''<nowiki>Liuteronybė Mažojoje Lietuvoje [Lutheranism in Minor Lithuania]</nowiki>''] (in Lithuanian). Reformacijai – 500.</ref> Lutheranism played a crucial role in preserving the [[Lithuanian language]].<ref>Vyšniauskienė, M. (31 October 2015) [https://www.bernardinai.lt/2015-01-22-mindaugas-sabutis-jei-ne-liuteronai-turbut-siandien-lietuviskai-nekalbetume/ ''<nowiki>Mindaugas Sabutis. Jei ne liuteronai, turbūt šiandien lietuviškai nekalbėtume [If not for Lutherans, we probably wouldn't be speaking in Lithuanian today]</nowiki>''] (in Lithuanian). [[Bernardinai.lt]].</ref>

Since 1520, regular<ref name="books.google.com">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=29k9AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA195 |title=Historisk fremstilling af reformationens indførelse i Danmark|access-date=5 March 2015|last1=Rohmann|first1=J. L|year=1836}}</ref> Lutheran services have been held in [[Copenhagen]]. Under the reign of [[Frederick I of Denmark|Frederick I]] (1523–33), Denmark–Norway remained officially Catholic. Although Frederick initially pledged to persecute Lutherans, he soon adopted a policy of protecting Lutheran preachers and reformers, the most significant of which was [[Hans Tausen]].<ref name="Gilbert-12"/>

During Frederick's reign, Lutheranism made significant inroads in Denmark. At an open meeting in Copenhagen attended by King Christian III in 1536, the people shouted; "We will stand by the holy Gospel, and do not want such bishops anymore".<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=29k9AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA195 |title=Historisk fremstilling af reformationens indførelse i Danmark|location=Kjobenhavn|year=1836|pages=195|access-date=5 March 2015|last1=Rohmann|first1=J. L}}</ref> Frederick's son was openly Lutheran, which prevented his election to the throne upon his father's death in 1533. However, following his victory in [[Count's Feud|the civil war]] that followed, in 1536 he became [[Christian III of Denmark|Christian III]] and advanced the [[Reformation in Denmark–Norway and Holstein|Reformation in Denmark–Norway]].

The constitution upon which the Danish Norwegian Church, according to the [[Church Order (Lutheran)|Church Ordinance]], should rest was "The pure word of God, which is the Law and the Gospel".<ref>{{cite book | author = J. L. Rohmann | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=29k9AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA202 | title = Historisk fremstilling af reformationens indførelse i Danmark |location = Kjobenhavn | year = 1836 | pages=202|access-date=5 March 2015}}</ref> It does not mention the<ref name="books.google.com"/> [[Augsburg Confession]]. The priests had to<ref name="books.google.com"/> understand the Holy Scripture well enough to preach and explain the Gospel and the [[Epistle#New Testament epistles|Epistles]] to their congregations.

The youths were taught<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=29k9AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA195 |title=Historisk fremstilling af reformationens indførelse i Danmark|access-date=5 March 2015|last1=Rohmann|first1=J. L|year=1836}}</ref> from ''[[Luther's Small Catechism]]'', available in [[Danish language|Danish]] since 1532. They were taught to expect at the end of life:<ref name="books.google.com"/> "forgiving of their sins", "to be counted as just", and "the eternal life". Instruction is still similar.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.retsinformation.dk/Forms/R0710.aspx?id=72723|title=Danmarks og Norges Kirke-Ritual (Kirkeritualet) |date=25 July 1685 |publisher=retsinformation.dk|access-date=5 March 2015}}</ref>

The first complete [[Bible]] in [[Danish language|Danish]] was based on [[Luther Bible|Martin Luther's translation]] into [[German language|German]]. It was published in 1550 with 3,000 copies printed in the first edition; a second edition was published in 1589.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rxt3f6fbHGgC&pg=PA416 |title=A Dictionary of the Bible|access-date=5 March 2015|isbn=9781410217301|last1=Hastings|first1=James|date=October 2004|publisher=The Minerva Group }}</ref> Unlike Catholicism, Lutheranism does not believe that tradition is a carrier of the "Word of God", or that only the communion of the [[Bishop of Rome]] has been entrusted to interpret the "Word of God".<ref name="books.google.com"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/compendium_ccc/documents/archive_2005_compendium-ccc_en.html|title=Compendium of the Catechism of the Catholic Church|access-date=5 March 2015}}</ref>

The [[Religion in Sweden#Lutheran Reformation|Reformation in Sweden]] began with [[Olaus Petri|Olaus]] and [[Laurentius Petri]], brothers who took the Reformation to Sweden after studying in Germany. They led [[Gustav Vasa]], elected king in 1523, to Lutheranism. The pope's refusal to allow the replacement of an archbishop who had supported the invading forces opposing Gustav Vasa during the [[Stockholm Bloodbath]] led to the severing of any official connection between Sweden and the papacy in 1523.<ref name="Gilbert-12">[http://vlib.iue.it/carrie/texts/carrie_books/gilbert/12.html Chapter 12: The Reformation In Germany And Scandinavia], ''Renaissance and Reformation'' by William Gilbert.</ref>

Four years later, at the {{interlanguage link|Diet of Västerås|sv|Västerås riksdag}}, the king succeeded in forcing the diet to accept his dominion over the national church. The king was given possession of all church properties, as well as the church appointments and approval of the clergy. While this effectively granted official sanction to Lutheran ideas,<ref name="Gilbert-12"/> Lutheranism did not become official until 1593. At that time the [[Uppsala Synod]] declared Holy Scripture the sole guideline for faith, with four documents accepted as faithful and authoritative explanations of it: the ''[[Apostles' Creed]]'', the ''[[Nicene Creed]]'', the ''[[Athanasian Creed]]'', and the unaltered ''Augsburg Confession'' of 1530.<ref>N.F. ''Lutheran Cyclopedia'', article, "[https://books.google.com/books?id=93ErAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA528 Upsala, Diet of]", New York: Schrivner, 1899. pp. 528–529.</ref> [[Mikael Agricola]]'s translation of the first ''[[Se Wsi Testamenti|Finnish New Testament]]'' was published in 1548.<ref>''Lutheran Cyclopedia'', article, "[https://books.google.com/books?id=H3NBAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA5 Agricola, Michael]", New York: Schrivner, 1899. p. 5.</ref>

===Counter-Reformation and controversies===
[[File:Toleranzbethaus Fresach, copy Hundskirche in der Kreuzen.jpg|thumb|A Hundskirche replica]]
After the death of [[Martin Luther]] in 1546, the [[Schmalkaldic War]] started out as a conflict between two German Lutheran rulers in 1547. Soon, Holy Roman Imperial forces joined the battle and conquered the members of the [[Schmalkaldic League]], oppressing and exiling many German Lutherans as they enforced the terms of the [[Augsburg Interim]]. Religious freedom in some areas was secured for Lutherans through the [[Peace of Passau]] in 1552, and under the legal principle of ''[[Cuius regio, eius religio]]'' (the religion of the ruler was to dictate the religion of those ruled) and the [[Declaratio Ferdinandei]] (limited [[religious tolerance]]) clauses of the [[Peace of Augsburg]] in 1555.<ref>Fuerbringer, L., ''[https://archive.org/details/concordiacyclope009499mbp Concordia Cyclopedia]'' [[Concordia Publishing House]]. 1927. p. 425</ref>

Religious disputes between the [[Crypto-Calvinism|Crypto-Calvinists]], [[Philippists]], [[Sacramentarians]], [[Ubiquitarians]] and [[Gnesio-Lutherans]] raged within Lutheranism during the middle of the 16th century. This finally ended with the resolution of the issues in the ''Formula of Concord''. Large numbers of politically and religiously influential leaders met together, debated, and resolved these topics on the basis of Scripture, resulting in the Formula, which over 8,000 leaders signed. The ''Book of Concord'' replaced earlier, incomplete [[Body of Doctrine|collections of doctrine]], unifying all German Lutherans with identical doctrine and beginning the period of Lutheran Orthodoxy.

In lands where [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]] was the state religion, Lutheranism was officially illegal, although enforcement varied. Until the end of the [[Counter-Reformation#Politics|Counter-Reformation]], some Lutherans worshipped secretly, such as at the Hundskirke (which translates as dog church or dog altar), a triangle-shaped [[Mass rock|Communion rock]] in a ditch between crosses in [[Paternion]], Austria. The crowned serpent is possibly an allusion to [[Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor]], while the dog possibly refers to [[Peter Canisius]]. Another figure interpreted as a snail carrying a church tower is possibly a metaphor for the Protestant church. Also on the rock is the number 1599 and a phrase translating as "thus gets in the world".<ref>This photograph is of a replica of the original Hundskirche stone. [https://books.google.com/books?id=oACQQTZugRgC&pg=PA363 Zeitschrift für Oesterreichische Volkskunde], (Google Books) by Theodor Vernaleken, 1896</ref>

===Lutheran orthodoxy===
{{Main|Lutheran orthodoxy}}
[[File:Collegium Jenense.jpg|thumb|The [[University of Jena]] in Germany, the center of [[Gnesio-Lutherans|Gnesio-Lutheran]] activity leading up to the [[Formula of Concord]], and  a center of Lutheran orthodoxy]]
[[File:Sophie Magdalene, queen of Denmark and Norway.jpg|thumb|Danish Queen [[Sophie Magdalene of Brandenburg-Kulmbach|Sophie Magdalene]] expressed her [[Pietism|Pietist]] sentiment in 1737 by founding a [[Vallø stift|Lutheran convent]].]]
The historical period of Lutheran Orthodoxy is divided into three sections: Early Orthodoxy (1580–1600), High Orthodoxy (1600–1685), and Late Orthodoxy (1685–1730). [[Lutheran scholasticism]] developed gradually, especially for the purpose of arguing with the [[Jesuits]], and it was finally established by [[Johann Gerhard]]. [[Abraham Calovius]] represents the climax of the [[Scholasticism|scholastic]] paradigm in orthodox Lutheranism. Other orthodox Lutheran theologians include [[Martin Chemnitz]], [[Aegidius Hunnius]], [[Leonhard Hutter]], [[Nicolaus Hunnius]], [[Jesper Rasmussen Brochmand]], [[Salomo Glassius]], [[Johann Hülsemann]], [[Johann Conrad Dannhauer]], [[Johannes Andreas Quenstedt]], [[Johann Friedrich König]], and [[Johann Wilhelm Baier]].

Near the end of the [[Thirty Years' War]], the compromising spirit seen in [[Philip Melanchthon]] rose up again in [[University of Helmstedt|Helmstedt]] School and especially in theology of [[Georgius Calixtus]], causing the [[syncretistic controversy]]. Another theological issue that arose was the Crypto-Kenotic controversy.<ref>[http://cyclopedia.lcms.org/display.asp?t1=L&word=LUTHERANTHEOLOGYAFTER1580 Lutheran Theology after 1580] article in [[Christian Cyclopedia]]</ref>

Late orthodoxy was torn by influences from [[Rationalism#Classical rationalism|rationalism]], philosophy based on reason, and [[Pietism]], a revival movement in Lutheranism. After a century of vitality, the Pietist theologians [[Philipp Jakob Spener]] and [[August Hermann Francke]] warned that orthodoxy had degenerated into meaningless intellectualism and [[Formalism (philosophy)#Religion|formalism]], while orthodox theologians found the emotional and subjective focuses of Pietism to be vulnerable to Rationalist propaganda.<ref name=CC426>Fuerbringer, L., ''[https://archive.org/details/concordiacyclope009499mbp Concordia Cyclopedia]'' Concordia Publishing House. 1927. p. 426</ref> In 1688, the Finnish [[Radical Pietism|Radical Pietist]] [[Lars Ulstadius]] ran down the main aisle of [[Turku Cathedral]] naked while screaming that the disgrace of Finnish clergymen would be revealed like his current disgrace.

The last famous orthodox Lutheran theologian before the rationalist ''Aufklärung'', or ''Enlightenment'', was [[David Hollatz (dogmatician)|David Hollatz]]. Late orthodox theologian [[Valentin Ernst Löscher]] took part in the controversy against [[Pietism]]. Medieval [[Christian mysticism|mystical]] traditions continued in the works of [[Martin Moller]], [[Johann Arndt]], and [[Joachim Lütkemann]]. Pietism became a rival of orthodoxy but adopted some devotional literature by orthodox theologians, including Arndt, [[Christian Scriver]] and [[Stephan Prätorius]].

===Rationalism===
Rationalist philosophers from France and England had an enormous impact during the 18th century, along with the German Rationalists [[Christian Wolff (philosopher)|Christian Wolff]], [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz#Ecumenism|Gottfried Leibniz]], and [[Immanuel Kant#Religious writings|Immanuel Kant]]. Their work led to an increase in rationalist beliefs, "at the expense of faith in God and agreement with the Bible".<ref name=CC426/>

In 1709, [[Valentin Ernst Löscher]] warned that this new Rationalist view of the world fundamentally changed society by drawing into question every aspect of theology. Instead of considering the authority of divine revelation, he explained, Rationalists relied solely on their personal understanding when searching for truth.<ref>Kleinig, Vernon P. "Confessional Lutheranism in Eighteenth-Century Germany." ''[http://www.ctsfw.net/media/pdfs/kleinigconfessionallutheranism.pdf Concordia Theological Quarterly 60(1–2)]'' Jan–April 1996: Part I, Valentin Ernst Loescher p. 102.</ref>

[[Johann Melchior Goeze]] (1717–1786), pastor of [[St. Catherine's Church, Hamburg]], wrote [[Christian apologetics|apologetical]] works against Rationalists, including a theological and historical defence against the [[historical criticism]] of the Bible.<ref>Kleinig, Vernon P. "Confessional Lutheranism in Eighteenth-Century Germany." ''[http://www.ctsfw.net/media/pdfs/kleinigconfessionallutheranism.pdf Concordia Theological Quarterly 60(1–2)]'' Jan–April 1996: Part II, Melchior Goeze pp. 109–112.</ref>

Dissenting Lutheran pastors were often reprimanded by the government bureaucracy overseeing them, for example, when they tried to correct Rationalist influences in the parish school.<ref>Rietschel, William C. ''An Introduction to the Foundations of Lutheran Education''. St. Louis: Concordia, 2000. p. 25 (Although this reference specifically mentions Saxony, government promoted rationalism was a trend across Germany)</ref> As a result of the impact of a local form of rationalism, termed [[Neology]], by the latter half of the 18th century, genuine piety was found almost solely in small Pietist conventicles.<ref name=CC426/> However, some of the laity preserved Lutheran orthodoxy from both Pietism and rationalism through reusing old catechisms, hymnbooks, [[postil]]s, and devotional writings, including those written by [[Johann Gerhard]], [[Heinrich Müller (theologian)|Heinrich Müller]] and [[Christian Scriver]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stolaf.edu/people/lund/Research.htm|title=Untitled Document|access-date=5 March 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924110723/http://www.stolaf.edu/people/lund/Research.htm|archive-date=24 September 2015|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

===Revivals===
[[File:A Tidemand-Haugianerne.jpg|thumb|A 19th century [[Haugean movement|Haugean]] [[conventicle]]|alt=]]
[[File:Olbers.jpg|thumb|The ''Olbers'', one of the ships that carried Old Lutherans to the [[Western Hemisphere]]]]
[[File:Konfirmaatio Aholansaari 2009.JPG|thumb|Representing a continuous tradition of the [[Awakening (Finnish religious movement)|Finnish Awakening]], youth are confirmed at [[Paavo Ruotsalainen]]'s homestead in [[Nilsiä]], Finland.|alt=]]
Luther scholar [[Johann Georg Hamann]] (1730–1788), a layman, became famous for countering Rationalism and striving to advance a [[Christian revival#19th century|revival]] known as the ''Erweckung'', or ''Awakening''.<ref name=Gritsch180>Gritsch, Eric W. [https://books.google.com/books?id=fIhb4-iBk6EC&pg=PA180 A History of Lutheranism]. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2002. p. 180.</ref> In 1806, [[War of the Fourth Coalition|Napoleon's invasion of Germany]] promoted Rationalism and angered German Lutherans, stirring up a desire among the people to preserve Luther's theology from the Rationalist threat. Those associated with this ''Awakening'' held that reason was insufficient and pointed out the importance of emotional religious experiences.<ref name="Armin Sierszyn p. 155">Armin Sierszyn: 2000 Jahre Kirchengeschichte, Book.4, Die Neuzeit, p. 155</ref><ref name="Suelflow, Roy A. 1967. p. 10">Suelflow, Roy A. ''Walking With Wise Men''. Milwaukee: [[South Wisconsin District (LCMS)]], 1967. p. 10</ref>

Small groups sprang up, often in universities, which devoted themselves to Bible study, reading devotional writings, and revival meetings. Although the beginning of this ''Awakening'' tended heavily toward Romanticism, [[patriotism]], and experience, the emphasis of the ''Awakening'' shifted around 1830 to restoring the traditional liturgy, doctrine, and confessions of Lutheranism in the [[Neo-Lutheranism|Neo-Lutheran]] movement.<ref name="Armin Sierszyn p. 155"/><ref name="Suelflow, Roy A. 1967. p. 10"/>

This Awakening swept through all of [[Scandinavia]] except [[Iceland]].<ref name="Latourette p.165">[[Kenneth Scott Latourette|Latourette, Kenneth Scott]]. ''Christianity in a Revolutionary Age, Volume II, The Nineteenth Century in Europe''. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. p. 165.</ref> It developed from both German Neo-Lutheranism and Pietism. Danish pastor and philosopher [[N. F. S. Grundtvig]] reshaped church life throughout Denmark through a reform movement beginning in 1830. He also wrote about 1,500 hymns, including ''[[God's Word Is Our Great Heritage]]''.<ref name = Gritsch182>Gritsch, Eric W. [https://books.google.com/books?id=fIhb4-iBk6EC&pg=PA182 A History of Lutheranism]. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2002. p. 182.</ref>

In [[Norway]], [[Hans Nielsen Hauge]], a lay street preacher, emphasized spiritual discipline and sparked the [[Haugean]] movement,<ref name= Gritsch183>Gritsch, Eric W. [https://books.google.com/books?id=fIhb4-iBk6EC&pg=PA183 A History of Lutheranism]. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2002. p. 183.</ref> which was followed by the ''[[Gisle Johnson|Johnsonian Awakening]]'' within the state-church.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=6QszAQAAQBAJ&dq=%22usually+referred+to+as+the+%27Johnsonian+awakening%27%22&pg=PA22 Building God's Kingdom: Norwegian Missionaries in Highland Madagascar 1866–1903] by Karina Hestad Skeie, p. 22</ref> The ''Awakening'' drove the growth of foreign missions in Norway to non-Christians to a new height, which has never been reached since.<ref name="Latourette p.165"/> In Sweden, [[Lars Levi Læstadius]] began the [[Laestadianism|Laestadian movement]] that emphasized moral reform.<ref name=Gritsch183 /> In Finland, a farmer, [[Paavo Ruotsalainen]], began the [[Finnish Awakening]] when he took to preaching about repentance and prayer.<ref name=Gritsch183/>

In 1817, [[Frederick William III of Prussia]] ordered the Lutheran and Reformed churches in his territory to unite, forming the [[Prussian Union of Churches]]. The unification of the two branches of German Protestantism sparked the [[Prussian Union (Evangelical Christian Church)#Quarrels over the union|Schism of the Old Lutherans]]. Many Lutherans, called "[[Old Lutherans]]", chose to leave the state churches despite imprisonment and military force.<ref name = Gritsch180 /> Some formed independent church bodies, or "[[free church]]es", at home while [[Old Lutherans#North American migrations|others left]] for the United States, Canada and Australia. A similar legislated merger in [[Silesia]] prompted thousands to join the Old Lutheran movement. The dispute over ecumenism overshadowed other controversies within German Lutheranism.<ref>{{Cite book | year=1974 | contribution=Lutheran Churches | editor-last=Benton | editor-first=William | editor-link=William Benton (senator) | title=Encyclopædia Britannica | edition=15 | place=Chicago | publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. | volume=11 | page=198 | isbn=978-0-85229-290-7 }}</ref>

Despite political meddling in church life, local and national leaders sought to restore and renew Christianity. Neo-Lutheran [[Johann Konrad Wilhelm Löhe]] and Old Lutheran free church leader Friedrich August Brünn<ref>[http://www.lcms.org/ca/www/cyclopedia/02/display.asp?t1=b&word=BRUNN.FRIEDRICHAUGUST Christian Cyclopedia article on Brünn]</ref> both sent young men overseas to serve as pastors to [[German American]]s, while the [[Inner Mission (Germany)|Inner Mission]] focused on renewing the situation home.<ref name=Gritsch184>Gritsch, Eric W. [https://books.google.com/books?id=fIhb4-iBk6EC&pg=PA184 A History of Lutheranism]. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2002. p. 184.</ref> [[Johann Gottfried Herder]], [[superintendent (ecclesiastical)|superintendent]] at Weimar and part of the Inner Mission movement, joined with the Romantic movement with his quest to preserve human emotion and experience from Rationalism.<ref name=Gritsch187>Gritsch, Eric W. [https://books.google.com/books?id=fIhb4-iBk6EC&pg=PA187 A History of Lutheranism]. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2002. p. 187.</ref>

[[Ernst Wilhelm Hengstenberg]], though raised Reformed, became convinced of the truth of historic Lutheranism as a young man.<ref name=KSL21>[[Kenneth Scott Latourette|Latourette, Kenneth Scott]]. ''Christianity in a Revolutionary Age, Volume II, The Nineteenth Century in Europe.'' Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1959, p. 21.</ref> He led the Neo-Lutheran ''Repristination School'' of theology, which advocated a return to the orthodox theologians of the 17th century and opposed modern Bible scholarship.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Repristination Theology |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=6 Apr 2010 |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/498536/Repristination-Theology}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=March 2019}} As editor of the periodical ''[[Evangelische Kirchenzeitung]]'', he developed it into a major support of Neo-Lutheran revival and used it to attack all forms of theological liberalism and rationalism. Although he received a large amount of slander and ridicule during his forty years at the head of revival, he never gave up his positions.<ref name=KSL21/>

The theological faculty at the [[University of Erlangen]] in [[Bavaria]] became another force for reform.<ref name=KSL21/> There, professor [[Gottlieb Christoph Adolf von Harless|Adolf von Harless]], though previously an adherent of rationalism and [[German idealism]], made Erlangen a magnet for revival oriented theologians.<ref name=KSL22>[[Kenneth Scott Latourette|Latourette, Kenneth Scott]]. ''Christianity in a Revolutionary Age, Volume II, The Nineteenth Century in Europe.'' Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. p. 22.</ref> Termed the ''Erlangen School'' of theology, they developed a new version of the [[Incarnation (Christianity)|Incarnation]],<ref name=KSL22/> which they felt emphasized the humanity of [[Jesus in Christianity|Jesus]] better than the ecumenical creeds.<ref name=HJN175>Nichols, James Hastings. History of Christianity 1650–1950: Secularization of the West. New York, Ronald Press, 1956, p. 175.</ref> As theologians, they used both modern historical critical and Hegelian philosophical methods instead of attempting to revive the orthodoxy of the 17th century.<ref>Gassmann, Günther, et al. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Htz8M1Xlqi4C&pg=PA32 Historical dictionary of Lutheranism]. Augsburg Fortress, Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press, 2001. p. 32.</ref>

[[Friedrich Julius Stahl]] led the ''[[High Church Lutheranism|High Church Lutherans]]''. Though raised Jewish, he was baptized as a Christian at the age of 19 through the influence of the Lutheran school he attended. As the leader of a [[neofeudalism|neofeudal]] Prussian political party, he campaigned for the [[divine right of kings]], the power of the [[Junker|nobility]], and [[episcopal polity]] for the church. Along with [[Theodor Kliefoth]] and [[August Friedrich Christian Vilmar]], he promoted agreement with the Roman Catholic Church with regard to the [[Magisterium|authority of the institutional church]], [[ex opere operato]] effectiveness of the sacraments, and the divine authority of clergy. Unlike Catholics, however, they also urged complete agreement with the ''Book of Concord''.<ref name=HJN175/>

The Neo-Lutheran movement managed to slow secularism and counter atheistic [[Marxism]], but it did not fully succeed in Europe.<ref name=Gritsch184/> It partly succeeded in continuing the Pietist movement's drive to right social wrongs and focus on individual conversion. The Neo-Lutheran call to renewal failed to achieve widespread popular acceptance because it both began and continued with a lofty, idealistic [[Romanticism]] that did not connect with an increasingly [[Second Industrial Revolution#Socio-economic impacts|industrialized]] and [[Religion in Europe#Irreligion|secularized]] Europe.<ref name=Gritsch188>Gritsch, Eric W. [https://books.google.com/books?id=fIhb4-iBk6EC&pg=PA188 A History of Lutheranism]. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2002. p. 188.</ref> The work of local leaders resulted in specific areas of vibrant spiritual renewal, but people in Lutheran areas became increasingly distant from church life.<ref name=Gritsch184/> Additionally, the revival movements were divided by philosophical traditions. The Repristination school and Old Lutherans tended towards Kantianism, while the Erlangen school promoted a [[Right Hegelians#Hegelian theologians|conservative Hegelian perspective]]. By 1969, Manfried Kober complained that "unbelief is rampant" even within German Lutheran parishes.<ref>Detzler, Wayne A. ''The Changing Church in Europe.'' Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1979. p. 17. Quotation from Manfred Kober, ''Theology in Germany'', from the Reformation Review, April 1969.</ref>