Kingdom of Aksum

==History==
[[File:Contenitore di simulacro con rilievo e iscrizioni, V secolo ac ca. 06.jpg|thumb|An Axumite [[Stele|stela]]]]

===Early history===
Before the establishment of Axum, the Tigray plateau of northern Ethiopia was home to a kingdom known as [[Dʿmt]]. Archaeological evidence shows that the kingdom was influenced by [[Sabaeans]] from modern-day Yemen; scholarly consensus had previously been that Sabaeans had been the founders of Semitic civilization in Ethiopia, though this has now been refuted, and their influence is considered to have been minor.<ref name="Munro-Hay57">{{Cite book|url=http://www.dskmariam.org/artsandlitreature/litreature/pdf/aksum.pdf|title=Aksum: An African Civilization of Late Antiquity|last=Munro-Hay|first=Stuart|publisher=University Press|year=1991|location=Edinburgh|page=57|access-date=February 1, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130123223427/http://www.dskmariam.org/artsandlitreature/litreature/pdf/aksum.pdf|archive-date=January 23, 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref>{{Efn| According to Munro-Hay, "The arrival of Sabaean influences does not represent the beginning of Ethiopian civilisation.... Semiticized Agaw peoples are thought to have migrated from south-eastern Eritrea possibly as early as 2000 BC, bringing their 'proto-Ethiopic' language, ancestor of Geʽez and the other Ethiopian Semitic languages, with them; and these and other groups had already developed specific cultural and linguistic identities by the time any Sabaean influences arrived."<ref name="Munro-Hay57" />}}<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.addistribune.com/Archives/2003/01/17-01-03/Let.htm|title=Let's Look Across the Red Sea I|last=Pankhurst|first=Richard K. P.|date=January 17, 2003|newspaper=Addis Tribune|access-date=February 1, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060109162335/http://www.addistribune.com/Archives/2003/01/17-01-03/Let.htm|archive-date=January 9, 2006|author-link=Richard Pankhurst (academic)}}</ref> The Sabaean presence likely lasted only for a matter of decades, but their influence on later Aksumite civilization included the adoption of [[Ancient South Arabian script]], which developed into [[Geʽez script]], and [[Ancient Semitic religion]].<ref name= Munro6162>{{cite book |last= Munro-Hay|first= Stuart|date= 1991|title= Aksum: An African Civilisation of Late Antiquity|location= Edinburgh|publisher= Edinburgh University Press|pages= 61–62|isbn= 0748601066}}</ref>

The initial centuries of Aksum's development, transitioning from a modest regional center to a significant power, remain largely obscure. Stone Age artifacts have been unearthed at [[Lioness of Gobedra|Gobedra]], two kilometers west of [[Aksum]]. Excavations on Beta Giyorgis, a hill to the northwest of Aksum, validate the pre-Aksumite roots of a settlement in the vicinity of Aksum, dating back to approximately the 7th to 4th centuries B.C. Further evidence from excavations in the Stele Park at the heart of Aksum corroborates continuous activity in the area from the outset of the common era. Two hills and two streams lie on the east and west expanses of the city of Aksum; perhaps providing the initial impetus for settling this area.<ref name="users.clas.ufl.edu">[http://users.clas.ufl.edu/sterk/junsem/haas.pdf Archived copy] ufl.edu {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180329065343/http://users.clas.ufl.edu/sterk/junsem/haas.pdf |date=2018-03-29 }}</ref><ref name="whc.unesco.org">{{Cite web|url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/15|title = Aksum}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Uhlig |first1=Siegbert |title=Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C |pages=173}}</ref>

Archeological evidence suggests that the Aksumite polity arose between 150 B.C. and 150 A.D. Small scale district "kingdoms" denoted by very large nucleated communities with one or more elite residences appears to have existed in the early period of the kingdom of Aksum, and here Stuart Munro-Hay concludes that; "Quite probably, the kingdom was a confederacy, one which was led by a district-level king who commanded the allegiance of other petty kings within the Axumite realm. The ruler of the Axumite kingdom was thus 'King-of-Kings' — a title often found in inscriptions of this period. There is no evidence that a single royal lineage has yet emerged, and it is quite possible that at the death of a King-of-Kings, a new one would be selected from among all the kings in the confederacy, rather than through some principle of primogeniture."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Uhlig |first1=Siegbert |title=Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C |pages=181}}</ref><ref>S. C. Munro-Hay (1991) ''Aksum: An African Civilization of Late Antiquity''. Edinburgh: University Press. p. 40. {{ISBN|0748601066}}</ref>

===Rise of Aksum===
The first historical mention of Axum comes from the ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]'', a trading guide which likely dates to the mid-1st century AD. Axum is mentioned alongside [[Adulis]] and [[Ptolemais Theron|Ptolemais of the Hunts]] as lying within the realm of [[Zoskales]]. The area is described as a primarily producing ivory, as well as tortoise shells. King Zoskales had a Greek education, indicating that Greco-Roman influence was already present at this time.<ref name="sourcebooks.fordham.edu">{{cite web |title=The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: Travel and Trade in the Indian Ocean by a Merchant of the First Century | url=https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/ancient/periplus.asp | website=Fordham University Internet History Sourcebooks, chapters 4 and 5}}</ref> It is evident from the Periplus that, even at this early stage of its history, Axum played a role in the transcontinental [[Indo-Roman trade relations|trade route between Rome and India]].<ref>{{cite book |last= Phillips|first= Jacke|date= 2016|chapter= Aksum, Kingdom of|editor-last= MacKenzie|editor-first= John M.|title= The Encyclopedia of Empire|location= Hoboken|publisher= John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.|pages= 1–2|isbn= 9781118455074}}</ref>

The Aksumite control over [[Adulis]] enabled the exchange of Ethiopian products for foreign imports. Both [[Pliny the Elder]] and the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea make reference to this port, situated three days away from the initial ivory market at [[Qohaito|Coloe]], itself five days distant from Aksum. This trade across the Red Sea, spanning from the Roman Empire in the north to India and Ceylon in the east, played a crucial role in Aksum's prosperity. The city thrived by exporting goods such as ivory, tortoiseshell, and rhinoceros horn. Pliny also mentioned additional items like hippopotamus hide, monkeys, and slaves.  During the 2nd century A.D., [[Ptolemy]]'s geographer referred to Aksum as a powerful kingdom. Both archaeological findings and textual evidence suggest that during this period, a centralized regional polity had emerged in the Aksumite area, characterized by defined social stratification. By the beginning of the 4th century A.D., the Aksumite state had become well-established, featuring urban centers, an official currency with coinage struck in gold, silver, and copper, an intensive agricultural system, and a organized military.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Uhlig |first1=Siegbert |title=Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C |pages=174}}</ref>

Around 200 A.D., Aksumite ambitions had expanded to Southern Arabia, where Aksum appears to have established itself in [[Al-Maafer District|Al-Maafer]] and engaged in conflicts with Saba and Himyar at various points, forming different alliances with chief kingdoms and tribes. During the early part of the 3rd century, the kings [[GDRT]] and [[ʽDBH]] dispatched military expeditions to the region. Inscriptions from local Arabian dynasties refer to these rulers with the title "nagasi of Aksum and Habashat," and a metal object discovered in eastern Tigray also mentions a certain "GDR ''negus'' of Aksum." Later in the century the ''mlky hhst dtwns wzqrns'' (kings of Habashat [[DTWNS]] and [[ZQRNS]]) are also mentioned fighting in Arabia. According to a Greek inscription in Eritrea known as the ''[[Monumentum Adulitanum]]'' recorded by [[Cosmas Indicopleustes]], in around the mid to late 3rd century (possibly c. 240–c. 260), the Aksumites led by an anonymous king achieved significant territorial expansion in the [[Ethiopian Highlands]] and the [[Arabian Peninsula]], with their influence extending as far as [[Lake Tana]] and the borders of Egypt.<ref>George Hatke, ''Aksum and Nubia: Warfare, Commerce, and Political Fictions in Ancient Northeast Africa'' (New York University Press, 2013), pp. 44. {{ISBN|0-7486-0106-6}}</ref><ref name="dx.doi.org2">{{Cite journal|date=August 1910|title=The Christian Topography of Cosmas Indicopleustes|journal=Nature|volume=84|issue=2127|pages=133–134|doi=10.1038/084133a0|issn=0028-0836|bibcode=1910Natur..84..133.|hdl=2027/coo1.ark:/13960/t07w6zm1b|s2cid=3942233|url=https://archive.org/details/christiantopogra00cosmuoft|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Uhlig |first1=Siegbert |title=Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C |pages=175}}</ref>

By the end of the 3rd century A.D., Aksum had gained recognition by the prophet [[Mani (prophet)|Mani]] in the ''[[Kephalaia]]'', as one of the four great powers of the world alongside Rome, Persia, and China. As the political influence of Aksum expanded, so did the grandeur of its monuments. Excavations by archaeological expeditions revealed early use of stelae, evolving from plain and rough markers to some of the largest monuments in Africa. The granite stelae in the main cemetery, housing Aksumite royal tombs, transformed from plain to carefully dressed granite, eventually carved to resemble multi-storey towers in a distinctive architectural style. Aksumite architecture featured massive dressed granite blocks, smaller uncut stones for walling, mud mortar, bricks for vaulting and arches, and a visible wooden framework, known as "monkey-heads" or square corner extrusions. Walls inclined inwards and incorporated several recessed bays for added strength. Aksum and other cities, such as [[Adulis]] and [[Matara, Eritrea|Matara]], boasted substantial "palace" buildings employing this architectural style. In the early 6th century, [[Cosmas Indicopleustes]] described his visit to Aksum, mentioning the four-towered palace of the Aksumite king, adorned with bronze statues of unicorns. Aksum also featured rows of monumental granite thrones, likely bearing metal statues dedicated to pre-Christian deities. These thrones incorporated large panels at the sides and back with inscriptions, attributed to [[Ousanas]], [[Ezana of Axum|Ezana]], [[Kaleb of Axum|Kaleb]], and his son [[Wazeba of Axum|Wazeba]], serving as victory monuments documenting the wars of these kings.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Uhlig |first1=Siegbert |title=Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C |pages=176}}</ref>

King [[Ezana of Axum|Ezana]] became the first Christian ruler of Aksum in the 4th century. Ezana's coins and inscriptions make the change from pre-Christian imagery to Christian symbolism around 340 A.D. The conversion to Christianity was one of the most revolutionary events in the history of Ethiopia as it gave Aksum a cultural link with the [[Greco-Roman world|Mediterranean]]. Aksum gained a political link with the [[Byzantine Empire]], which regarded itself as the protector of [[Christendom]]. Three inscriptions on the [[Ezana Stone]] documents the conversion of King Ezana to Christianity and two of his military expeditions against neighboring areas, one inscribed in Greek and the other in Geez. The two expeditions refers to two distinct campaigns, one against the "[[Noba]]", and the other against the [[Beja people|Beja]]. According to the inscription, the Noba were settled somewhere around the Nile and Atbara confluence, where they seemed to have taken over much of the [[Kingdom of Kush]]. Yet they did not drive the Kushites away from their heartland, since the inscription states that the Aksumites fought them at the junction of the two rivers. Also mentioned in the inscription are the mysterious "red Noba" against whom an expedition was carried out. This people seems to be settled further north and may be identical with the "other Nobades" mentioned in the inscription of the Nubian king [[Silko]] carved on the wall of the [[Temple of Kalabsha]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Uhlig |first1=Siegbert |title=Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C |pages=177}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Uhlig |first1=Siegbert |title=Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: He-N |pages= 1193}}</ref>

[[File:Aksum obelisk.jpg|thumb|The [[Obelisk of Axum]]]]

[[Kaleb of Axum|King Kaleb]] sent an expedition against the Jewish [[Himyarite Kingdom|Himyarite]] King [[Dhu Nuwas]], who was persecuting the Christian community in Yemen. Kaleb gained widespread acclaim in his era as the conqueror of Yemen. He expanded his royal title to include king of Hadramawt in southeastern Yemen, as well as the coastal plain and highland of Yemen, along with "all their Arabs", highlighting the extensive influence of Aksum across the Red Sea into Arabia. [[Dhu Nuwas]] was deposed and killed and Kaleb appointed an Arab viceroy named [[Esimiphaios]] ("Sumuafa Ashawa"), but his rule was short-lived as he was ousted in a coup led by an Aksumite named [[Abraha]] after five years. Kaleb sent two expeditions against Abraha, but both were decisively defeated. According to [[Procopius]], following Aksum's unsuccessful attempts to remove him, [[Abraha]] continued to govern Yemen through a tribute arrangement with the king of Aksum.<ref>{{Cite book|title=History of the Later Roman Empire|last=Bury|first=J. B.|publisher=Macmillan & Co.|year=1923|pages=325–326|volume=II}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Uhlig |first1=Siegbert |title=Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C |pages=178}}</ref>

After [[Abraha]]'s death, his son [[Masruq Abraha]] continued the Aksumite vice-royalty in Yemen, resuming payment of tribute to Aksum. However, his half-brother Ma'd-Karib revolted. Ma'd-Karib first sought help from the Roman Emperor [[Justinian the Great]], but having been denied, he decided to ally with the [[Sasanian Empire|Sassanid Persian Emperor]] [[Khosrow I]], triggering the [[Aksumite–Persian wars]]. Khosrow I sent a small fleet and army under commander [[Vahrez]] to depose the king of Yemen. The war culminated with the [[Siege of Sana'a (570)|Siege of Sana'a]], capital of Aksumite Yemen. After its fall in 570, and Masruq's death, Ma'd-Karib's son, Saif, was put on the throne. In 575, the war resumed again, after Saif was killed by Aksumites. The Persian general [[Vahrez]] led another army of 8000, ending Axum rule in Yemen and becoming hereditary governor of Yemen. According to [[Stuart Munro-Hay]], these wars may have been Aksum's swan-song as a great power, with an overall weakening of Aksumite authority and over-expenditure in money and manpower.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Uhlig |first1=Siegbert |title=Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C |pages=178}}</ref>

===Decline===
[[File:Hijra Abyssinia (Rashid ad-Din).jpg|thumb|upright=1|14th century Islamic portrayal of the [[Migration to Abyssinia|First Hijrah]]]]
Aksumite trade in the Red Sea likely suffered due to the Persian conquests in Egypt and Syria, followed by the defeats in Yemen. However, a more enduring impact occurred with the rise of [[Islam]] in the early 7th century and the expansion of the [[Rashidun Caliphate]]. Axum initially had good relations with its Islamic neighbours. In 615 AD for example, early [[Muslim]]s from [[Mecca]] fleeing [[Quraysh (tribe)|Quraysh]]i persecution traveled to Axum and were given refuge; this journey is known in [[Islamic history]] as the [[Migration to Abyssinia|First Hijrah]]. However, in 630, [[Muhammad]] sent a naval expedition led by [[Umar]] against ''[[al-Habash]]'', the [[Expedition of Alqammah bin Mujazziz]], igniting hostile relations.<ref>E. Cerulli, "Ethiopia's Relations with the Muslim World" in ''Cambridge History of Africa: Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh century'', p. 575.</ref><ref>Trimingham, Spencer, ''Islam in Ethiopia'', p. 46.</ref> Trade with the Roman/Byzantine world came to a halt as the Arabs seized the eastern Roman provinces. Consequently, Aksum experienced a decline in prosperity due to increased isolation and eventually ceased production of coins in the early 8th century.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Uhlig |first1=Siegbert |title=Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C |pages=178}}</ref>

The Islamic conquests were not solely responsible for the decline of Aksum. Another reason for the decline was the expansions of the [[Beja people|Beja]] nomads. Due to the poverty of their country, many of them began to migrate into the northern Ethiopian plateau. At the end of the 7th century AD, a strong Beja tribe known as the [[Beja kingdoms|Zanafaj]] entered the [[Eritrea]]n plateau through the valley of [[Gash-Barka]]. They overran and pillaged much of the [[Eritrea]]n highlands as the Aksum could no longer maintain its sovereignty over the frontier. As a result the connection to the [[Red Sea]] ports was lost.<ref>Trimingham, Spencer, ''Islam in Ethiopia'', p. 49.</ref>

Around this same time, the Aksumite population was forced to go farther inland to the [[Ethiopian Highlands|highlands]] for protection, abandoning Aksum as the capital. Arab writers of the time continued to describe Ethiopia (no longer referred to as Aksum) as an extensive and powerful state, though they had lost control of most of the coast and their tributaries.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Uhlig |first1=Siegbert |title=Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C |pages=178}}</ref> While land was lost in the north, it was gained in the south; and, though Ethiopia was no longer an economic power, it still attracted Arab merchants. The capital was then moved south to a new location called [[Kubar]].<ref name="Munro-Hay57" /> The Arab writer [[Ya'qubi]] was the first to describe the new Aksumite capital. The capital was probably located in southern [[Tigray Region|Tigray]] or [[Angot]]; however, the exact location of this city is currently unknown.<ref>Taddesse Tamrat, ''Church and State in Ethiopia'' (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), p. 36.</ref>  [[Famine]] is noted in Ethiopia in the ninth century. The Coptic patriarchs [[Pope Jacob of Alexandria|James]] (819–830) and [[Pope Joseph I of Alexandria|Joseph]] (830–849) of Alexandria attribute Ethiopia's condition to war, plague, and inadequate rains.<ref>Evetts, B.: "History of the Patriarchs of the Coptic Church of Alexandria", by Sawirus ibn al-Mukaffa', bishop of al-Ashmunien, Vol I, IV, Menas I to Joseph, PO X fasc. 5. pp 375-551, Paris, 1904</ref> Under the reign of [[Degna Djan]], during the 9th century, the empire kept expanding south, undertaking missionary activities south of [[Angot]].<ref>Werner J. Lange, "History of the Southern Gonga (southwestern Ethiopia)", Steiner, 1982, p.  18</ref>

====Gudit's invasion====
{{main|Gudit}}
[[File:ET Axum asv2018-01 img45 Dungur.jpg|alt=Aksum Dongur Palace in Aksum|thumb|Ruins of [[Dungur]] (also known as Queen of Sheba's Palace) in Aksum, Tigray Region, Ethiopia]]
[[File:AXUM. Ezanas. Circa 330-360.jpg|thumb|upright|Coins of King [[Ezana]], 330–360 AD. ]]
Local history holds that, around 960, a Jewish Queen named Yodit (Judith) or "[[Gudit]]" defeated the empire and burned its churches and literature. While there is evidence of churches being burned and an invasion around this time, her existence has been questioned by some western authors. [[Gudit]] sacked Aksum by destroying churches and buildings, persecuted Christians and committed Christian [[iconoclasm]]. Her origin has been debated among scholars. Some argued that she had a [[Jewish]] ethnicity or was from a southern region. According to one traditional account, she reigned for forty years and her [[dynasty]] lasted until 1137 AD, when it was overthrown by [[Mara Takla Haymanot]], resulting in the inception of the [[Agaw people|Agaw]]-led [[Zagwe dynasty]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Henze |first=Paul B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gzwoedwOkQMC&pg=PA49 |title=Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia |date=2000 |publisher=Hurst & Company |isbn=978-1-85065-393-6 |language=en}}</ref>

According to an oral tradition, Gudit rose to power after she killed the [[Beta Israel]] king and then reigned for 40 years. She brought her Jewish army from [[Semien Mountains]] and [[Lake Tana]] to orchestrate the pillage against Aksum and its countryside. She was determined to destroy all members of the Aksumite dynasty, palaces, churches and monuments in [[Tigray Province|Tigray]]. Her notorious deeds are still recounted by peasants inhabiting northern Ethiopia. Large ruins, standing stones and stelae are found in the area.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Childress |first=David Hatcher |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N4pXDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT207 |title=Ark of God: The Incredible Power of the Ark of the Covenant |date=2015-10-27 |publisher=SCB Distributors |isbn=978-1-939149-60-2 |language=en}}</ref> Gudit also killed the last emperor of Aksum, possibly [[Dil Na'od]], while other accounts say Dil Na'od went into exile in [[Shewa]], protected by Christians. He begged assistance from a [[African Greeks#Ancient Nubia|Nubian Greek]] ruler, King [[Moses Georgios of Makuria|Moses Georgios]], but remained unanswered.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jewel |first=Lady |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vx_N_bEKNj8C&pg=PA246 |title=Keeper of the Ark (a Moses Trilogy): For the Love of Moses, for the Children of Moses, for the Children of God |date=August 2012 |publisher=WestBow Press |isbn=978-1-4497-5061-9 |language=en}}</ref> She was said to have been succeeded by Dagna-Jan, whose throne name was Anbasa Wudem.<ref name=":0" /> Her reign was marked by the displacement of the Aksumite population into the south. According to one Ethiopian traditional account, she reigned for forty years and her dynasty was eventually overthrown by [[Mara Takla Haymanot|Mara Tekla Haymanot]] in 1137 AD, who ushered in the formation of the [[Zagwe dynasty]] by bearing children with a descendant of the last Aksumite emperor, Dil Na'od.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mekonnen |first=Yohannes K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q0pZPp032c0C&pg=PA288 |title=Ethiopia: The Land, Its People, History and Culture |date=April 2013 |publisher=New Africa Press |isbn=978-9987-16-024-2 |language=en}}</ref>

It is clear from contemporary sources that a female usurper did indeed rule the country at this time, and that her reign ended some time before 1003. After a short Dark Age, the Aksumite Empire was succeeded by the [[Zagwe dynasty]] in the 11th or 12th century (most likely around 1137), although limited in size and scope. However, [[Yekuno Amlak]], who killed the last Zagwe king and founded the modern [[Solomonic dynasty]] around 1270 traced his ancestry and his right to rule from the last emperor of Aksum, [[Dil Na'od]]. It should be mentioned that the end of the Aksumite Empire didn't mean the end of Aksumite culture and traditions; for example, the architecture of the Zagwe dynasty at [[Lalibela]] and [[Yemrehana Krestos Church]] shows heavy Aksumite influence.<ref name="Munro-Hay57" />