Internet

== History ==
{{Main|History of the Internet |History of the World Wide Web}}

In the 1960s, [[computer scientists]] began developing systems for [[time-sharing]] of computer resources.<ref name="Lee1992">{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=J.A.N. |last2=Rosin |first2=Robert F |date=1992 |title=Time-Sharing at MIT |url=https://archive.org/details/time-sharing-at-mit |journal=IEEE Annals of the History of Computing |volume=14 |issue=1 |page=16 |doi=10.1109/85.145316 |s2cid=30976386 |access-date=October 3, 2022}}</ref><ref name="ctsspg">F. J. Corbató, et al., ''[http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/mit/ctss/CTSS_ProgrammersGuide.pdf The Compatible Time-Sharing System A Programmer's Guide]'' (MIT Press, 1963) {{ISBN|978-0-262-03008-3}}. "To establish the context of the present work, it is informative to trace the development of time-sharing at MIT. Shortly after the first paper on time-shared computers by C. Strachey at the June 1959 UNESCO Information Processing conference, H.M. Teager and J. McCarthy delivered an unpublished paper "Time-Shared Program Testing" at the August 1959 ACM Meeting."</ref> [[J. C. R. Licklider]] proposed the idea of a universal network while working at [[Bolt Beranek & Newman]] and, later, leading the [[Information Processing Techniques Office]] (IPTO) at the [[Advanced Research Projects Agency]] (ARPA) of the United States [[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]] (DoD). Research into [[packet switching]], one of the fundamental Internet technologies, started in the work of [[Paul Baran]] in the early 1960s and, independently, [[Donald Davies]] in 1965.<ref name="The Washington Post" /><ref name="NIHF2007">{{cite web|url=http://www.invent.org/honor/inductees/inductee-detail/?IID=316|title=Inductee Details – Paul Baran|publisher=National Inventors Hall of Fame|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170906091231/http://www.invent.org/honor/inductees/inductee-detail/?IID=316|archive-date=6 September 2017|access-date=6 September 2017|postscript=none}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.invent.org/honor/inductees/inductee-detail/?IID=328|title=Inductee Details – Donald Watts Davies|publisher=National Inventors Hall of Fame|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170906091936/http://www.invent.org/honor/inductees/inductee-detail/?IID=328|archive-date=6 September 2017|access-date=6 September 2017}}</ref> After the [[Symposium on Operating Systems Principles]] in 1967, packet switching from the proposed [[NPL network]] was incorporated into the design of the [[ARPANET]], an experimental [[resource sharing]] network proposed by ARPA.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hauben |first1=Michael |url=http://www.columbia.edu/~hauben/book-pdf/CHAPTER%205.pdf |title=Netizens: On the History and Impact of Usenet and the Internet |last2=Hauben |first2=Ronda |date=1997 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-0-8186-7706-9 |language=en |chapter=5 The Vision of Interactive Computing And the Future |access-date=2 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210103184558/http://www.columbia.edu/~hauben/book-pdf/CHAPTER%205.pdf |archive-date=3 January 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Zelnick |first1=Bob |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q10phY811tUC&pg=PA66 |title=The Illusion of Net Neutrality: Political Alarmism, Regulatory Creep and the Real Threat to Internet Freedom |last2=Zelnick |first2=Eva |publisher=Hoover Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-8179-1596-4 |language=en |access-date=7 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110133435/https://books.google.com/books?id=Q10phY811tUC&pg=PA66 |archive-date=10 January 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Peter |first=Ian |year=2004 |title=So, who really did invent the Internet? |url=http://www.nethistory.info/History%20of%20the%20Internet/origins.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110903001108/http://www.nethistory.info/History%20of%20the%20Internet/origins.html |archive-date=3 September 2011 |access-date=27 June 2014 |website=The Internet History Project}}</ref>

ARPANET development began with two network nodes which were interconnected between the [[University of California, Los Angeles]] (UCLA) and [[SRI International]] (SRI) on 29 October 1969.<ref name="NetValley">{{cite web|url=http://www.netvalley.com/intval.html|title=Roads and Crossroads of Internet History|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160127082435/http://www.netvalley.com/intval.html|archive-date=27 January 2016|first=Gregory|last=Gromov|year=1995}}</ref> The third site was at the [[University of California, Santa Barbara]], followed by the [[University of Utah]]. In a sign of future growth, 15 sites were connected to the young ARPANET by the end of 1971.<ref>{{cite book | author-link = Katie Hafner | last = Hafner | first = Katie | title = Where Wizards Stay Up Late: The Origins of the Internet | publisher = Simon & Schuster | year = 1998 | isbn = 978-0-684-83267-8 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Hauben, Ronda |title=From the ARPANET to the Internet |year=2001 |url=http://www.columbia.edu/~rh120/other/tcpdigest_paper.txt |access-date=28 May 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090721093920/http://www.columbia.edu/~rh120/other/tcpdigest_paper.txt |archive-date=21 July 2009 }}</ref> These early years were documented in the 1972 film ''[[Computer Networks: The Heralds of Resource Sharing]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Internet Pioneers Discuss the Future of Money, Books, and Paper in 1972|url=https://paleofuture.gizmodo.com/internet-pioneers-discuss-the-future-of-money-books-a-880551175|access-date=31 August 2020|website=Paleofuture|date=23 July 2013 |language=en-us|archive-date=17 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201017141323/https://paleofuture.gizmodo.com/internet-pioneers-discuss-the-future-of-money-books-a-880551175|url-status=live}}</ref> Thereafter, the ARPANET gradually developed into a decentralized communications network, connecting remote centers and military bases in the United States.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Townsend |first=Anthony |date=2001 |title=The Internet and the Rise of the New Network Cities, 1969–1999 |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1068/b2688 |journal=Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design |language=en |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=39–58 |doi=10.1068/b2688 |bibcode=2001EnPlB..28...39T |issn=0265-8135 |s2cid=11574572}}</ref> Other user networks and research networks, such as the [[Merit Network]] and [[CYCLADES]], were developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kim |first1=Byung-Keun |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lESrw3neDokC |title=Internationalising the Internet the Co-evolution of Influence and Technology |date=2005 |publisher=Edward Elgar |isbn=978-1-84542-675-0 |pages=51–55}}</ref>

Early international collaborations for the ARPANET were rare. Connections were made in 1973 to the Norwegian Seismic Array ([[NORSAR]]),<ref>{{cite web |title=NORSAR and the Internet |url=http://www.norsar.no/norsar/about-us/History/Internet/ |publisher=NORSAR |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130121220318/http://www.norsar.no/norsar/about-us/History/Internet/ |archive-date=21 January 2013 }}</ref> and to [[Peter T. Kirstein|Peter Kirstein's]] research group at [[University College London]], which provided a gateway to [[Internet in the United Kingdom#History|British academic networks]], forming the first [[Internetworking|internetwork]] for [[resource sharing]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kirstein|first=P.T.|date=1999|title=Early experiences with the Arpanet and Internet in the United Kingdom|url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/4773/f19792f9fce8eacba72e5f8c2a021414e52d.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200207092443/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/4773/f19792f9fce8eacba72e5f8c2a021414e52d.pdf|archive-date=2020-02-07|journal=IEEE Annals of the History of Computing|volume=21|issue=1|pages=38–44|doi=10.1109/85.759368|s2cid=1558618|issn=1934-1547}}</ref> ARPA projects, [[International Networking Working Group|international working groups]] and commercial initiatives led to the development of various [[Communication protocol|protocols]] and standards by which multiple separate networks could become a single network or "a network of networks".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.internetsociety.org/internet/what-internet/history-internet/brief-history-internet#concepts|title=Brief History of the Internet: The Initial Internetting Concepts|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160409105511/http://www.internetsociety.org/internet/what-internet/history-internet/brief-history-internet|archive-date=9 April 2016|first=Barry M.|last=Leiner|website=Internet Society|access-date=27 June 2014}}</ref> In 1974, [[Vint Cerf]] at [[Stanford University]] and [[Bob Kahn]] at DARPA published a proposal for "A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication".<ref name="IEEE Transactions on Communications">{{Cite journal |last1=Cerf |first1=V. |last2=Kahn |first2=R. |date=1974 |title=A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication |url=https://www.cs.princeton.edu/courses/archive/fall06/cos561/papers/cerf74.pdf |journal=IEEE Transactions on Communications |volume=22 |issue=5 |pages=637–648 |doi=10.1109/TCOM.1974.1092259 |issn=1558-0857 |quote=The authors wish to thank a number of colleagues for helpful comments during early discussions of international network protocols, especially R. Metcalfe, R. Scantlebury, D. Walden, and H. Zimmerman; D. Davies and L. Pouzin who constructively commented on the fragmentation and accounting issues; and S. Crocker who commented on the creation and destruction of associations. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060913213037/https://www.cs.princeton.edu/courses/archive/fall06/cos561/papers/cerf74.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2006 |url-status=live }}</ref> They used the term ''internet'' as a shorthand for ''internetwork'' in ''{{IETF RFC|675}}'',<ref name="RFC675">{{cite IETF |title=Specification of Internet Transmission Control Protocol|rfc=675|last1=Cerf|first1=Vint|last2=Dalal|first2=Yogen|first3=Carl|last3=Sunshine |date=December 1974|publisher=[[Internet Engineering Task Force|IETF]]}}</ref> and later [[Request for Comments|RFCs]] repeated this use. Cerf and Kahn credit [[Louis Pouzin]] with important influences on the resulting [[TCP/IP]] design.<ref name="IEEE Transactions on Communications" /><ref>{{Cite news|date=30 November 2013|title=The internet's fifth man|newspaper=The Economist|url=https://www.economist.com/news/technology-quarterly/21590765-louis-pouzin-helped-create-internet-now-he-campaigning-ensure-its|access-date=22 April 2020|issn=0013-0613|quote=In the early 1970s Mr Pouzin created an innovative data network that linked locations in France, Italy and Britain. Its simplicity and efficiency pointed the way to a network that could connect not just dozens of machines, but millions of them. It captured the imagination of Dr Cerf and Dr Kahn, who included aspects of its design in the protocols that now power the internet.|archive-date=19 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200419230318/https://www.economist.com/news/technology-quarterly/21590765-louis-pouzin-helped-create-internet-now-he-campaigning-ensure-its|url-status=live}}</ref> National [[Postal, telegraph and telephone service|PTTs]] and commercial providers developed the [[X.25]] standard and deployed it on [[public data network]]s.<ref>{{cite book|last=Schatt|first=Stan|title=Linking LANs: A Micro Manager's Guide|publisher=McGraw-Hill|year=1991|isbn=0-8306-3755-9|page=200}}</ref>

Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the [[National Science Foundation]] (NSF) funded the [[CSNET|Computer Science Network]] (CSNET). In 1982, the [[Internet Protocol Suite]] (TCP/IP) was standardized, which facilitated worldwide proliferation of interconnected networks. TCP/IP network access expanded again in 1986 when the [[National Science Foundation Network]] (NSFNet) provided access to [[supercomputer]] sites in the United States for researchers, first at speeds of 56 kbit/s and later at 1.5 Mbit/s and 45 Mbit/s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.merit.edu/about/history/pdf/NSFNET_final.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150210181738/http://www.merit.edu/about/history/pdf/NSFNET_final.pdf|archive-date=2015-02-10|title=NSFNET: A Partnership for High-Speed Networking, Final Report 1987–1995|first=Karen D.|last=Frazer|website=Merit Network, Inc.|year=1995}}</ref> The NSFNet expanded into academic and research organizations in Europe, Australia, New Zealand and Japan in 1988–89.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cern.ch/ben/TCPHIST.html|title=A Short History of Internet Protocols at CERN|author=Ben Segal|author-link=Ben Segal|year=1995|access-date=14 October 2011|archive-date=19 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619203830/http://ben.web.cern.ch/ben/TCPHIST.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>[[RIPE|Réseaux IP Européens]] (RIPE)</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.apan.net/meetings/busan03/cs-history.htm|title=Internet History in Asia|work=16th APAN Meetings/Advanced Network Conference in Busan|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060201035514/http://apan.net/meetings/busan03/cs-history.htm|archive-date=1 February 2006|access-date=25 December 2005}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nordu.net/history/TheHistoryOfNordunet_simple.pdf|title=The History of NORDUnet|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304031416/http://www.nordu.net/history/TheHistoryOfNordunet_simple.pdf|archive-date=4 March 2016}}</ref> Although other network protocols such as [[UUCP]] and PTT public data networks had global reach well before this time, this marked the beginning of the Internet as an intercontinental network. Commercial [[Internet service providers]] (ISPs) emerged in 1989 in the United States and Australia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rogerclarke.com/II/OzI04.html#CIAP|title=Origins and Nature of the Internet in Australia|last=Clarke|first=Roger|access-date=21 January 2014|archive-date=9 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210209201253/http://www.rogerclarke.com/II/OzI04.html#CIAP|url-status=live}}</ref> The ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990.<ref>{{cite IETF |rfc=2235 |page=8 |last=Zakon |first=Robert |date=November 1997 |publisher=[[Internet Engineering Task Force|IETF]] |access-date=2 December 2020}}</ref>

[[File:NSFNET-backbone-T3.png|thumb|T3 [[NSFNET]] Backbone, {{Circa|1992}}]]

Steady advances in [[semiconductor]] technology and [[optical networking]] created new economic opportunities for commercial involvement in the expansion of the network in its core and for delivering services to the public. In mid-1989, [[MCI Mail]] and [[Compuserve]] established connections to the Internet, delivering email and public access products to the half million users of the Internet.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wDAEAAAAMBAJ&q=compuserve%20to%20mci%20mail%20internet&pg=PT31 |title=InfoWorld|date=25 September 1989 |via=Google Books |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170129225422/https://books.google.com/books?id=wDAEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT31&lpg=PT31&dq=compuserve%20to%20mci%20mail%20internet |archive-date=29 January 2017 }}</ref> Just months later, on 1 January 1990, PSInet launched an alternate Internet backbone for commercial use; one of the networks that added to the core of the commercial Internet of later years. In March 1990, the first high-speed T1 (1.5 Mbit/s) link between the NSFNET and Europe was installed between [[Cornell University]] and [[CERN]], allowing much more robust communications than were capable with satellites.<ref>{{Cite web|date=February 1990|title=INTERNET MONTHLY REPORTS|url=http://ftp.cuhk.edu.hk/pub/doc/internet/Internet.Monthly.Report/imr9002.txt|archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20170525080041/ftp://ftp.cuhk.edu.hk/pub/doc/internet/Internet.Monthly.Report/imr9002.txt|archive-date=25 May 2017|access-date=28 November 2020}}</ref> Six months later [[Tim Berners-Lee]] would begin writing [[WorldWideWeb]], the first [[web browser]], after two years of lobbying CERN management. By Christmas 1990, Berners-Lee had built all the tools necessary for a working Web: the [[HyperText Transfer Protocol]] (HTTP) 0.9,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.w3.org/Protocols/HTTP/AsImplemented.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19970605071155/http://www.w3.org/Protocols/HTTP/AsImplemented.html |archive-date=5 June 1997 |first=Tim |last=Berners-Lee |title=The Original HTTP as defined in 1991 |work=W3C.org}}</ref> the [[HyperText Markup Language]] (HTML), the first Web browser (which was also an [[HTML editor]] and could access [[Usenet]] newsgroups and [[FTP]] files), the first HTTP [[server application|server software]] (later known as [[CERN httpd]]), the first [[web server]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://info.cern.ch/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100105103513/http://info.cern.ch/|title=The website of the world's first-ever web server|archive-date=5 January 2010|website=info.cern.ch}}</ref> and the first Web pages that described the project itself. In 1991 the [[Commercial Internet eXchange]] was founded, allowing PSInet to communicate with the other commercial networks [[CERFnet]] and Alternet. [[Stanford Federal Credit Union]] was the first [[financial institution]] to offer online Internet banking services to all of its members in October 1994.<ref>{{cite press release|title=Stanford Federal Credit Union Pioneers Online Financial Services.|date=21 June 1995|url=http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Stanford+Federal+Credit+Union+Pioneers+Online+Financial+Services.-a017104850|access-date=21 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181221041632/https://www.thefreelibrary.com/Stanford+Federal+Credit+Union+Pioneers+Online+Financial+Services.-a017104850|archive-date=21 December 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1996, [[OP Financial Group]], also a [[cooperative bank]], became the second online bank in the world and the first in Europe.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.op.fi/op-financial-group/about-us/op-financial-group-in-brief/history | title=History – About us – OP Group | access-date=21 December 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181221041413/https://www.op.fi/op-financial-group/about-us/op-financial-group-in-brief/history | archive-date=21 December 2018 | url-status=live }}</ref> By 1995, the Internet was fully commercialized in the U.S. when the NSFNet was decommissioned, removing the last restrictions on use of the Internet to carry commercial traffic.<ref name="ConneXions-April1996">{{cite journal |url=http://www.merit.edu/research/nsfnet_article.php |title=Retiring the NSFNET Backbone Service: Chronicling the End of an Era |first1=Susan R. |last1=Harris |first2=Elise |last2=Gerich |journal=ConneXions |volume=10 |number=4 |date=April 1996 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130817124939/http://merit.edu/research/nsfnet_article.php |archive-date=17 August 2013 }}</ref>

{{Worldwide Internet users}}

As technology advanced and commercial opportunities fueled reciprocal growth, the volume of [[Internet traffic]] started experiencing similar characteristics as that of the scaling of [[MOS transistor]]s, exemplified by [[Moore's law]], doubling every 18 months. This growth, formalized as [[Edholm's law]], was catalyzed by advances in [[MOS technology]], [[laser]] light wave systems, and [[Noise (signal processing)|noise]] performance.<ref name="Jindal">{{cite book |last1=Jindal |first1=R. P. |title=2009 2nd International Workshop on Electron Devices and Semiconductor Technology |chapter=From millibits to terabits per second and beyond - over 60 years of innovation |s2cid=25112828 |year=2009 |pages=1–6 |doi=10.1109/EDST.2009.5166093 |chapter-url=https://events.vtools.ieee.org/m/195547 |isbn=978-1-4244-3831-0 |access-date=24 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190823230141/https://events.vtools.ieee.org/m/195547 |archive-date=23 August 2019 }}</ref>

Since 1995, the Internet has tremendously impacted culture and commerce, including the rise of near-instant communication by email, [[instant messaging]], telephony ([[Voice over Internet Protocol]] or VoIP), [[Video chat|two-way interactive video calls]], and the World Wide Web<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5242252.stm|title=How the web went world wide|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111121092636/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5242252.stm |archive-date=21 November 2011|first=Mark|last=Ward|website=Technology Correspondent|date=3 August 2006|publisher=BBC News|access-date=24 January 2011}}</ref> with its [[discussion forums]], blogs, [[social networking service]]s, and [[online shopping]] sites. Increasing amounts of data are transmitted at higher and higher speeds over fiber optic networks operating at 1 Gbit/s, 10 Gbit/s, or more. The Internet continues to grow, driven by ever-greater amounts of online information and knowledge, commerce, entertainment and social networking services.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://clickz.com/showPage.html?page=3626274 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081004000237/http://www.clickz.com/showPage.html?page=3626274|title=Brazil, Russia, India and China to Lead Internet Growth Through 2011 |publisher=Clickz.com |access-date=28 May 2009|archive-date=4 October 2008}}</ref> During the late 1990s, it was estimated that traffic on the public Internet grew by 100 percent per year, while the mean annual growth in the number of Internet users was thought to be between 20% and 50%.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dtc.umn.edu/~odlyzko/doc/internet.size.pdf |title=The size and growth rate of the Internet |access-date=21 May 2007 |author1=Coffman, K.G |author2=[[Odlyzko]], A.M. |publisher=AT&T Labs |date=2 October 1998 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614012344/http://www.dtc.umn.edu/~odlyzko/doc/internet.size.pdf |archive-date=14 June 2007 }}</ref> This growth is often attributed to the lack of central administration, which allows organic growth of the network, as well as the non-proprietary nature of the Internet protocols, which encourages vendor interoperability and prevents any one company from exerting too much control over the network.<ref>{{cite book | last = Comer | first = Douglas | title = The Internet book | publisher = Prentice Hall | page = [https://archive.org/details/internetbookever00come_0/page/64 64] | isbn = 978-0-13-233553-9 | year = 2006 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/internetbookever00come_0/page/64 }}</ref> {{as of|2011|March|31}}, the estimated total number of Internet users was 2.095&nbsp;billion (30% of [[world population]]).<ref name="stats1">{{cite web|url=http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm|title=World Internet Users and Population Stats|date=22 June 2011|work=Internet World Stats|publisher=Miniwatts Marketing Group|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110623200007/http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm|archive-date=23 June 2011|access-date=23 June 2011}}<!-- previous cite {{cite web|url=http://www.50x15.com/en-us/internet_usage.aspx |title=AMD 50x15 – World Internet Usage |publisher=50x15.com |access-date=6 November 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090831063352/http://www.50x15.com/en-us/internet_usage.aspx |archive-date=31 August 2009 |df= }} --></ref> It is estimated that in 1993 the Internet carried only 1% of the information flowing through two-way [[telecommunication]]. By 2000 this figure had grown to 51%, and by 2007 more than 97% of all telecommunicated information was carried over the Internet.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The World's Technological Capacity to Store, Communicate, and Compute Information |first1=Martin |last1=Hilbert |first2=Priscila |last2=López |s2cid=206531385 |date=April 2011 |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=332 |pages=60–65 |doi=10.1126/science.1200970 |issue=6025 |bibcode=2011Sci...332...60H |pmid=21310967 |doi-access=free }}</ref>