Hell

===Etymology===
[[File:Hel (1889) by Johannes Gehrts.jpg|thumb|''Hel'' (1889) by [[Johannes Gehrts]], depicts the Old Norse [[Hel (being)|Hel]], a goddess-like figure, in the [[Hel (location)|location of the same name]], which she oversees]]
The modern English word ''hell'' is derived from Old English ''hel'', ''helle'' (first attested around 725 AD to refer to a nether world of the dead) reaching into the [[Anglo-Saxon paganism|Anglo-Saxon pagan period]].<ref name=BARNHART348>[[Robert Barnhart|Barnhart, Robert K.]] (1995) ''The Barnhart Concise Dictionary of Etymology'', page 348. [[HarperCollins]] {{ISBN|0-06-270084-7}}</ref> The word has [[cognate]]s in all branches of the [[Germanic languages]], including Old Norse ''hel'' (which refers to both a [[Hel (location)|location]] and [[Hel (being)|goddess-like being]] in [[Norse mythology]]), [[Old Frisian]] ''helle'', [[Old Saxon]] ''hellia'', [[Old High German]] ''hella'', and [[Gothic language|Gothic]] ''halja''. All forms ultimately derive from the [[Linguistic reconstruction|reconstructed]] [[Proto-Germanic]] feminine noun *''xaljō'' or *''haljō'' ('concealed place, the underworld'). In turn, the Proto-Germanic form derives from the [[Indo-European ablaut|o-grade form]] of the [[Proto-Indo-European root]] *''kel-'', *''kol''-: 'to cover, conceal, save'.<ref name="HEL-NOUN">For discussion and analysis, see Orel (2003:156) and Watkins (2000:38).</ref> Indo-European cognates include Latin ''cēlāre'' ("to hide", related to the English word ''cellar'') and early Irish ''ceilid'' ("hides"). Upon the [[Christianisation of the Germanic peoples]], extensions of the Proto-Germanic *''xaljō'' were reinterpreted to denote the underworld in [[Christian mythology]]<ref name=BARNHART348/><ref>"hell, n. and int." ''OED Online'', Oxford University Press, January 2018, www.oed.com/view/Entry/85636. Accessed 7 February 2018.</ref> (see [[Gehenna]]).

Related early Germanic terms and concepts include Proto-Germanic *''xalja-rūnō(n)'', a feminine compound noun, and *''xalja-wītjan'', a neutral compound noun. This form is reconstructed from the Latinized Gothic plural noun *''haliurunnae'' (attested by [[Jordanes]]; according to philologist [[Vladimir Orel]], meaning '[[witchcraft|witches]]'), Old English ''helle-rúne'' ('sorceress, [[necromancer]]', according to Orel), and Old High German ''helli-rūna'' 'magic'. The compound is composed of two elements: *''xaljō'' (*''haljō'') and *''rūnō'', the Proto-Germanic precursor to Modern English ''[[runic alphabet|rune]]''.<ref name="HELL-RUNE">See discussion at Orel (2003:155–156 & 310).</ref> The second element in the Gothic ''haliurunnae'' may however instead be an agent noun from the verb ''rinnan'' ("to run, go"), which would make its literal meaning "one who travels to the netherworld".<ref>Scardigli, Piergiuseppe, Die Goten: Sprache und Kultur (1973) pp. 70–71.</ref><ref>Lehmann, Winfred, A Gothic Etymological Dictionary (1986)</ref>

Proto–Germanic *''xalja-wītjan'' (or *''halja-wītjan'') is reconstructed from Old Norse ''hel-víti'' 'hell', Old English ''helle-wíte'' 'hell-torment, hell', Old Saxon ''helli-wīti'' 'hell', and the Middle High German feminine noun ''helle-wīze''. The compound is a compound of *''xaljō'' (discussed above) and *''wītjan'' (reconstructed from forms such as Old English ''witt'' 'right mind, wits', Old Saxon ''gewit'' 'understanding', and Gothic ''un-witi'' 'foolishness, understanding').<ref name="HELVÍTI">Orel (2003:156 & 464).</ref>
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