Fiji Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! == History == {{Main|History of Fiji}} ===Early settlement=== [[File:Chronological dispersal of Austronesian people across the Pacific (per Benton et al, 2012, adapted from Bellwood, 2011).png|thumb|center|upright=2|Map showing the migration and expansion of the [[Austronesian peoples|Austronesians]], beginning {{circa|3000 BC}} from [[Taiwan]]]] [[File:Fijian mountain warrior, Kai Colo.jpg|thumb|left|upright|A Fijian mountain warrior. Photograph by [[Francis Herbert Dufty]], 1870s]] [[Pottery]] art from Fijian towns shows that Fiji was settled by [[Austronesian people]]s by at least 3500 to 1000 BC, with Melanesians following around a thousand years later, although there are still many open questions about the specific dates and patterns of human migration. It is believed that either the [[Lapita culture|Lapita people]] or the ancestors of the Polynesians settled the islands first, but not much is known of what became of them after the Melanesians arrived; the old culture may have had some influence on the new one, and archaeological evidence shows that some of the migrants moved on to [[Samoa]], [[Tonga]] and even [[Hawaii|Hawai'i]]. Archeological evidence also shows signs of human settlement on [[Moturiki Island]] beginning at least by 600 BC and possibly as far back as 900 BC. Although some aspects of Fijian culture are similar to the [[Melanesia]]n culture of the western Pacific, Fijian culture has a stronger connection to the older [[Polynesian culture]]s. The evidence is clear that there was trade between Fiji and neighbouring archipelagos long before [[Europeans]] made contact with Fiji. In the 10th century, the [[Tuʻi Tonga Empire|Tu'i Tonga Empire]] was established in Tonga, and Fiji came within its sphere of influence. The Tongan influence brought Polynesian customs and language into Fiji. That empire began to decline in the 13th century. Fiji has long had permanent settlements, but its peoples also have a history of mobility. Over the centuries, unique Fijian cultural practices developed. Fijians constructed large, elegant watercraft, with rigged sails called ''[[drua]]'' and exported some to Tonga. Fijians also developed a distinctive style of village architecture, consisting of communal and individual [[Bure (Fiji)|''bure'']] and ''vale'' housing, and an advanced system of ramparts and moats that were usually constructed around the more important settlements. Pigs were domesticated for food, and a variety of agricultural endeavors, such as [[banana plantations]], existed from an early stage. Villages were supplied with water brought in by constructed wooden aqueducts. Fijians lived in societies led by chiefs, elders and notable warriors. Spiritual leaders, often called ''bete'', were also important cultural figures, and the production and consumption of [[kava|''yaqona'']] was part of their ceremonial and community rites. Fijians developed a monetary system where the polished teeth of the [[sperm whale]], called ''tambua'', became an active currency. A type of writing existed which can be seen today in various petroglyphs around the islands.<ref>[[#Gravelle|Gravelle]]</ref> Fijians developed a refined [[Tapa cloth|''masi'' cloth]] textile industry, and used the cloth they produced to make sails and clothes such as the ''malo'' and the ''liku''. As with most other ancient human civilisations, warfare or preparation for warfare was an important part of everyday life in pre-colonial Fiji. The Fijians were noted for their distinctive use of weapons, especially war clubs.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Fijian weapons & warfare|last=Fergus.|first=Clunie|date=2003|publisher=Fiji Museum|isbn=978-9822080063|oclc=55604396}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Brewster|first1=Adolph|title=The hill tribes of Fiji|date=1922|publisher=Seeley|location=London|url=https://archive.org/details/hilltribesoffiji00brew}}</ref> Fijians used many different types of clubs that can be broadly divided into two groups, two handed clubs and small specialised throwing clubs called ''ula''.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.new-guinea-tribal-arts.com/fijian-war-clubs/|title=Fijian War clubs {{!}} Native weapons from Fiji {{!}} sell club {{!}} sell native weapon|date=19 March 2018|website=new guinea tribal arts|access-date=28 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181115195040/https://www.new-guinea-tribal-arts.com/fijian-war-clubs/|archive-date=15 November 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> [[File:Le Tour du monde-01-p200.jpg|thumb|Bure-kalou or temple, and scene of cannibalism]]With the arrival of Europeans in the 17th century, and European colonization in the late 19th century, many elements of Fijian culture were either repressed or modified to ensure European – specifically, British – control. This was especially the case with respect to traditional Fijian spiritual beliefs. Early colonists and missionaries pointed to the practice of [[Human cannibalism|cannibalism]] in Fiji as providing a moral imperative justifying colonization.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Williams |first1=Thomas |title=The islands and their inhabitants. |date=1858 |publisher=A. Heylin |page=[https://archive.org/details/fijiandfijians00calvgoog/page/n223 205] |url=https://archive.org/details/fijiandfijians00calvgoog}}</ref> Europeans labelled many native Fijian customs as debased or primitive, enabling many colonists to see Fiji as a "paradise wasted on savage cannibals".<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Banivanua-Mar|first1=Tracey|title=Cannibalism and Colonialism: Charting colonies and frontiers in 19th century Fiji|journal=Comparative Studies in Society and History|date=2010|volume=52|issue=2|pages=255–281|jstor=40603087|doi=10.1017/S0010417510000046|s2cid=145307937}}</ref> Authors such as Deryck Scarr<ref name=Scarr>[[#Scarr|Scarr]], p. 3</ref> have perpetuated 19th century claims of "freshly killed corpses piled up for eating" and ceremonial mass human sacrifice on the construction of new houses and boats.<ref>[[#Scarr|Scarr]], p. 19</ref> In fact, during colonial times, Fiji was known as ''the Cannibal Isles''. Modern archaeological research conducted on Fijian sites has shown that Fijians did in fact practice cannibalism, which has helped modern scholars to assess the accuracy of some of these colonial European accounts. Studies conducted by scholars including Degusta,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Degusta|first=David|date=1999|title=Fijian Cannibalism: Osteological Evidence from Navatu|pmid=10502244|journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology|volume=110|issue=2|pages=215–241|doi=10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(199910)110:2<215::AID-AJPA7>3.0.CO;2-D}}</ref> Cochrane,<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Cochrane|first=Ethan|date=2004|title=Culturally Modified Human Remains Recovered from an Earth-Oven Interment on Waya Island, Fiji|journal=Archaeology in Oceania|volume=39|pages=54–59|doi=10.1002/j.1834-4453.2004.tb00559.x}}</ref> and Jones<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Jones|first=S|date=2012|title=Kana Tamata or Feasts of Men: An Interdisciplinary Approach for Identifying Cannibalism in Prehistoric Fiji|doi=10.1002/oa.2269|journal=Freshwater Biology|volume=10|issue=2|pages=127–145}}</ref> provide evidence of burnt or cut human skeletons, suggesting that cannibalism was practised in Fiji. However, these archaeological accounts indicate that cannibalistic practices were likely more intermittent and less ubiquitous than European settlers had implied; it appears that the cannibalism may more often have been nonviolent and ritualistic.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2" /> === Early interaction with Europeans === [[File:Urville-Viti-Lebouka2.jpg|thumb|left|Levuka, 1842]] [[Netherlands|Dutch]] explorer [[Abel Tasman]] was the first known European visitor to Fiji, sighting the northern island of Vanua Levu and the North Taveuni archipelago in 1643 while looking for the Great Southern Continent.<ref>Wallis, H. Margaret (n.d.). Abel Tasman. Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Abel-Tasman</ref> [[James Cook]], the British navigator, visited one of the southern Lau islands in 1774. It was not until 1789, however, that the islands were charted and plotted, when [[William Bligh]], the castaway captain of {{HMS|Bounty}}, passed [[Ovalau (Fiji)|Ovalau]] and sailed between the main islands of Viti Levu and Vanua Levu en route to [[Jakarta|Batavia]], in what is now Indonesia. [[Bligh Water]], the strait between the two main islands, is named after him and for a time, the Fiji Islands were known as the ''Bligh Islands''. [[File:FIJI CLUB DANCE.png|thumb|The first Europeans to land and live among the Fijians were shipwrecked sailors like [[Charles Savage (beachcomber)|Charles Savage]].]] The first Europeans to maintain substantial contact with the Fijians were [[sandalwood]] merchants, whalers and [[sea cucumber|"beche-de-mer"]] (sea cucumber) traders. The first [[whaling]] vessel known to have visited was the ''Ann and Hope'' in 1799, and she was followed by many others in the 19th century.<ref>Robert Langdon (ed.) Where the whalers went; an index to the Pacific ports and islands visited by American whalers (and some other ships) in the 19th century, Canberra, Pacific Manuscripts Bureau, 1984, p.26. {{ISBN|0-86784-471-X}}</ref> These ships came for drinking water, food and firewood and, later, for men to help man their ships. Some of the Europeans who came to Fiji in this period were accepted by the locals and were allowed to stay as residents. By the 1820s, [[Levuka]] was established as the first European-style town in Fiji, on the island of Ovalau. The market for "beche-de-mer" in China was lucrative, and British and American merchants set up processing stations on various islands. Local Fijians were utilised to collect, prepare and pack the product which would then be shipped to Asia. A good cargo would result in a half-yearly profit of around $25,000 for the dealer.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Wilkes|first1=Charles|title=Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition. Vol. 3|publisher=C. Sherman|date=1849|location=Philadelphia|page=[https://archive.org/details/narrativeunited08wilkgoog/page/n277 220]|url=https://archive.org/details/narrativeunited08wilkgoog}}</ref> The Fijian workers were often given firearms and ammunition as an exchange for their labour, and by the end of the 1820s most of the Fijian chiefs had muskets and many were skilled at using them. Some Fijian chiefs soon felt confident enough with their new weapons to forcibly obtain more destructive weaponry from the Europeans. In 1834, men from Viwa and Bau were able to take control of the French ship ''L'amiable Josephine'' and use its cannon against their enemies on the [[Rewa River]], although they later ran it aground.<ref>[[#Gravelle|Gravelle]], pp. 47–50</ref> Christian missionaries like David Cargill also arrived in the 1830s from recently converted regions such as Tonga and [[Tahiti]], and by 1840 the European settlement at Levuka had grown to about 40 houses with former whaler [[David Whippey]] being a notable resident. The religious conversion of the Fijians was a gradual process which was observed first-hand by Captain [[Charles Wilkes]] of the United States Exploring Expedition. Wilkes wrote that "all the chiefs seemed to look upon Christianity as a change in which they had much to lose and little to gain".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Wilkes|first1=Charles|title=Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition Vol. 3|publisher=C. Sherman|date=1849|page=[https://archive.org/details/narrativeunited08wilkgoog/page/n206 155]|url=https://archive.org/details/narrativeunited08wilkgoog|access-date=16 April 2018}}</ref> Christianised Fijians, in addition to forsaking their spiritual beliefs, were pressured into cutting their hair short, adopting the [[Sulu (skirt)|sulu]] form of dress from Tonga and fundamentally changing their marriage and funeral traditions. This process of enforced cultural change was called ''lotu''.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Brewster|first1=Adolph|title=Hill Tribes of Fiji|date=1922|publisher=Seeley|location=London|page=[https://archive.org/details/hilltribesoffiji00brew/page/25 25]|url=https://archive.org/details/hilltribesoffiji00brew}}</ref> Intensification of conflict between the cultures increased, and Wilkes was involved in organising a large punitive expedition against the people of [[Malolo]]. He ordered an attack with rockets which acted as makeshift incendiary devices. The village, with the occupants trapped inside, quickly became an inferno with Wilkes noting that the "shouts of men were intermingled with the cries and shrieks of the women and children" as they burnt to death. Wilkes demanded the survivors should "sue for mercy" and if not "they must expect to be exterminated". Around 57 to 87 Maloloan people were killed in this encounter.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Wilkes|first1=Charles|title=Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition Vol 3|publisher=C. Sherman|date=1849|page=[https://archive.org/details/narrativeunited08wilkgoog/page/n347 278]|url=https://archive.org/details/narrativeunited08wilkgoog|access-date=16 April 2018}}</ref> === Cakobau and the wars against Christian infiltration === [[File:Ratu Tanoa Visawaqa.jpg|thumb|Ratu [[Tanoa Visawaqa]]]] [[File:Cakobau, died February 1883, photograph by Francis H. Dufty.jpg|thumb|Ratu [[Seru Epenisa Cakobau]], ''Self Proclaimed Tui Viti'']] The 1840s was a time of conflict where various Fiji clans attempted to assert dominance over each other. Eventually, a warlord named [[Seru Epenisa Cakobau]] of Bau Island was able to become a powerful influence in the region. His father was Ratu [[Tanoa Visawaqa]], the [[Vunivalu of Bau|Vunivalu]] (a chiefly title meaning warlord'','' often translated also as paramount chief) who had previously subdued much of western Fiji. Cakobau, following on from his father, became so dominant that he was able to expel the Europeans from Levuka for five years over a dispute about their giving of weapons to his local enemies. In the early 1850s, Cakobau went one step further and declared war on all Christians. His plans were thwarted after the missionaries in Fiji received support from the already converted Tongans and the presence of a British warship. The Tongan Prince [[Enele Maʻafu]], a Christian, had established himself on the island of Lakeba in 1848, forcibly converting the local people to the [[Methodism|Methodist Church]]. Cakobau and other chiefs in the west of Fiji regarded Maʻafu as a threat to their power and resisted his attempts to expand Tonga's dominion. Cakobau's influence, however, began to wane, and his heavy imposition of taxes on other Fijian chiefs, who saw him at best as [[Primus inter pares|first among equals]], caused them to defect from him.<ref>[[#Gravelle|Gravelle]], pp. 67–80</ref> Around this time the [[United States]] also became interested in asserting their power in the region, and they threatened intervention following a number of incidents involving their consul in the Fiji islands, John Brown Williams. In 1849, Williams had his trading store looted following an accidental fire, caused by stray cannon fire during a [[Independence Day (United States)|Fourth of July]] celebration, and in 1853 the European settlement of Levuka was burnt to the ground. Williams blamed Cakobau for both these incidents, and the U.S. representative wanted Cakobau's capital at Bau destroyed in retaliation. A naval blockade was instead set up around the island which put further pressure on Cakobau to give up on his warfare against the foreigners and their Christian allies. Finally, on 30 April 1854, Cakobau offered his ''soro'' (supplication) and yielded to these forces. He underwent the ''lotu'' and converted to Christianity. The traditional Fijian temples in Bau were destroyed, and the sacred ''[[Casuarina equisetifolia|nokonoko]]'' trees were cut down. Cakobau and his remaining men were then compelled to join with the Tongans, backed by the Americans and British, to subjugate the remaining chiefs in the region who still refused to convert. These chiefs were soon defeated with Qaraniqio of the [[Rewa Province|Rewa]] being poisoned and Ratu Mara of Kaba being hanged in 1855. After these wars, most regions of Fiji, except for the interior highland areas, had been forced into giving up much of their traditional systems and were now vassals of Western interest. Cakobau was retained as a largely symbolic representative of a few Fijian peoples and was allowed to take the ironic and self proclaimed title of "Tui Viti" ("King of Fiji"), but the overarching control now lay with foreign powers.<ref>[[#Gravelle|Gravelle]], pp. 76–97</ref> === Cotton, confederacies and the Kai Colo === [[File:Tui Namosi, Kai Colo.jpg|thumb|left|Kai Colo warrior]] The rising price of cotton in the wake of the [[American Civil War]] (1861–1865) caused an influx of hundreds of settlers to Fiji in the 1860s from Australia and the United States in order to obtain land and grow cotton. Since there was still a lack of functioning government in Fiji, these planters were often able to get the land in violent or fraudulent ways such as exchanging weapons or alcohol with Fijians who may or may not have been the true owners. Although this made for cheap land acquisition, competing land claims between the planters became problematic with no unified government to resolve the disputes. In 1865, the settlers proposed a confederacy of the seven main native kingdoms in Fiji to establish some sort of government. This was initially successful, and Cakobau was elected as the first president of the confederacy.<ref>[[#Gravelle|Gravelle]], p. 102</ref> [[File:Flag of the Confederacy of Independent Kingdoms of Fiji.svg|thumb|Flag of the Confederacy of Independent Kingdoms of Fiji, 1865–1867]] With the demand for land high, the white planters started to push into the hilly interior of Viti Levu. This put them into direct confrontation with the Kai Colo, which was a general term to describe the various Fijian clans resident to these inland districts. The Kai Colo were still living a mostly traditional lifestyle, they were not Christianised, and they were not under the rule of Cakobau or the confederacy. In 1867, a travelling missionary named [[Thomas Baker (missionary)|Thomas Baker]] was killed by Kai Colo in the mountains at the headwaters of the [[Sigatoka River]]. The acting British consul, [[John Bates Thurston]], demanded that Cakobau lead a force of Fijians from coastal areas to suppress the Kai Colo. Cakobau eventually led a campaign into the mountains but suffered a humiliating loss with 61 of his fighters being killed.<ref>[[#Gravelle|Gravelle]], pp. 102–107</ref> Settlers also came into conflict with the local eastern Kai Colo people called the Wainimala. Thurston called in the [[Australia Station]] section of the [[Royal Navy]] for assistance. The Navy duly sent Commander [[Rowley Lambert]] and {{HMS|Challenger|1858|6}} to conduct a punitive mission against the Wainimala. An armed force of 87 men shelled and burnt the village of Deoka, and a skirmish ensued which resulted in the deaths of over 40 Wainimala.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article166803071 |title=FIJI. |work=[[The Sydney Mail|Sydney Mail]] |volume=IX |issue=429 |location=New South Wales, Australia |date=19 September 1868 |access-date=9 April 2018 |page=11 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref> === Kingdom of Fiji (1871–1874) === {{main|Kingdom of Fiji}} [[File:Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Fiji_(1871-1874).svg|thumb|Flag of the [[Kingdom of Fiji]], 1871–1874]] After the collapse of the confederacy, [[Enele Maʻafu]] established a stable administration in the Lau Islands and the Tongans. Other foreign powers such as the United States were considering the possibility of annexing Fiji. This situation was not appealing to many settlers, almost all of whom were British subjects from Australia. Britain, however, refused to annex the country, and a compromise was needed.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article63106962 |title=The Empire. |issue=5767 |location=New South Wales, Australia |date=11 May 1870 |access-date=10 April 2018 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref> In June 1871, [[George Austin Woods]], an ex-lieutenant of the Royal Navy, managed to influence Cakobau and organise a group of like-minded settlers and chiefs into forming a governing administration. Cakobau was declared the monarch (''Tui Viti'') and the Kingdom of Fiji was established. Most Fijian chiefs agreed to participate, and even Ma'afu chose to recognise Cakobau and participate in the [[constitutional monarchy]]. However, many of the settlers had come from [[Australia]], where negotiation with the [[Indigenous Australians|indigenous people]] almost universally involved forced coercion. As a result, several aggressive, racially motivated opposition groups, such as the British Subjects Mutual Protection Society, sprouted up. One group called themselves the [[Ku Klux Klan]] in a homage to the [[White supremacy|white supremacist]] group in America.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article191569882 |title=No title |work=[[The Ballarat Courier]] |issue=1538 |location=Victoria, Australia |date=22 May 1872 |access-date=10 April 2018 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref> However, when respected individuals such as [[Charles St Julian]], Robert Sherson Swanston and John Bates Thurston were appointed by Cakobau, a degree of authority was established.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article60446405 |title=FIJI. |work=Illustrated Australian News For Home Readers |issue=187 |location=Victoria, Australia |date=16 July 1872 |access-date=11 April 2018 |page=154 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref> [[File:Three kai colo, ca. 1873, carte de visite by Francis Herbert Dufty.jpg|thumb|Three Kai Colo men in traditional Fijian attire]] With the rapid increase in white settlers into the country, the desire for land acquisition also intensified. Once again, conflict with the Kai Colo in the interior of Viti Levu ensued. In 1871, the killing of two settlers near the [[Ba River (Fiji)|Ba River]] in the northwest of the island prompted a large [[punitive expedition]] of white farmers, imported slave labourers, and coastal Fijians to be organised. This group of around 400 armed vigilantes, including veterans of the U.S. Civil War, had a battle with the Kai Colo near the village of Cubu, in which both sides had to withdraw. The village was destroyed, and the Kai Colo, despite being armed with muskets, received numerous casualties.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article158947917 |title=FIJIAN EXPERIENCES. |work=[[Adelaide Observer]] |volume=XXVIII |issue=1576 |location=South Australia |date=16 December 1871 |access-date=11 April 2018 |page=11 |via=National Library of Australia}} </ref> The Kai Colo responded by making frequent raids on the settlements of the whites and Christian Fijians throughout the [[Ba Province|district of Ba]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article170155477 |title=FIJI. |work=[[The Advocate (Melbourne)|The Advocate]] |volume=IV |issue=160 |location=Victoria, Australia |date=3 February 1872 |access-date=11 April 2018 |page=11 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref> Likewise, in the east of the island on the upper reaches of the Rewa River, villages were burnt, and many Kai Colo were shot by the vigilante settler squad called the Rewa Rifles.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article170157875 |title=MASSACRE OF NATIVES BY SETTLERS IN FIJI. |work=[[The Advocate (Melbourne)|The Advocate]] |volume=IV |issue=196 |location=Victoria, Australia |date=12 October 1872 |access-date=11 April 2018 |page=9 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref> Although the Cakobau government did not approve of the settlers taking justice into their own hands, it did want the Kai Colo subjugated and their land sold. The solution was to form an army. Robert S. Swanston, the minister for Native Affairs in the Kingdom, organised the training and arming of suitable Fijian volunteers and prisoners to become soldiers in what was variably called the King's Troops or the Native Regiment. In a similar system to the [[Australian native police|Native Police]] that was present in the colonies of Australia, two white settlers, James Harding and W. Fitzgerald, were appointed as the head officers of this paramilitary brigade.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article194847556 |title=LETTER FROM FIJI. |work=[[Hamilton Spectator]] |issue=1083 |location=Victoria, Australia |date=14 August 1872 |access-date=11 April 2018 |page=3 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref> The formation of this force did not sit well with many of the white plantation owners as they did not trust an army of Fijians to protect their interests. The situation intensified further in early 1873 when the Burns family was killed by a Kai Colo raid in the Ba River area. The Cakobau government deployed 50 King's Troopers to the region under the command of Major Fitzgerald to restore order. The local whites refused their posting, and deployment of another 50 troops under Captain Harding was sent to emphasise the government's authority. To prove the worth of the Native Regiment, this augmented force went into the interior and massacred about 170 Kai Colo people at Na Korowaiwai. Upon returning to the coast, the force was met by the white settlers who still saw the government troops as a threat. A skirmish between the government's troops and the white settlers' brigade was only prevented by the intervention of Captain William Cox Chapman of {{HMS|Dido|1869|6}}, who detained the leaders of the locals, forcing the group to disband. The authority of the King's Troops and the Cakobau government to crush the Kai Colo was now total.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article5851961 |title=FIJI. |work=[[The Argus (Melbourne)]] |issue=8 |location=Victoria, Australia |date=16 April 1873 |access-date=12 April 2018 |page=5 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref> From March to October 1873, a force of about 200 King's Troops under the general administration of Swanston with around 1,000 coastal Fijian and white volunteer auxiliaries, led a campaign throughout the highlands of Viti Levu to annihilate the Kai Colo. Major Fitzgerald and Major H.C. Thurston (the brother of John Bates Thurston) led a two pronged attack throughout the region. The combined forces of the different clans of the Kai Colo made a stand at the village of Na Culi. The Kai Colo were defeated with dynamite and fire being used to flush them out from their defensive positions amongst the mountain caves. Many Kai Colo were killed, and one of the main leaders of the hill clans, Ratu Dradra, was forced to surrender with around 2,000 men, women and children being taken prisoner and sent to the coast.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article63234385 |title=LATEST FROM FIJI. |work=[[Empire (newspaper)|Empire]] |issue=668 |location=New South Wales, Australia |date=29 August 1873 |access-date=13 April 2018 |page=3 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref> In the months after this defeat, the only main resistance was from the clans around the village of Nibutautau. Major Thurston crushed this resistance in the two months following the battle at Na Culi. Villages were burnt, Kai Colo were killed, and a further large number of prisoners were taken.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article162658560 |title=FIJI ISLANDS. |work=[[The Sydney Mail and New South Wales Advertiser]] |volume=XVI |issue=694 |location=New South Wales, Australia |date=18 October 1873 |access-date=13 April 2018 |page=512 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref> About 1,000 of the prisoners (men, women and children) were sent to Levuka where some were hanged and the rest were sold into [[slavery]] and forced to work on various plantations throughout the islands.<ref>[[#Gravelle|Gravelle]], p. 131</ref> === Blackbirding and slavery in Fiji === {{Main|Blackbirding#In Fiji}} [[File:Melanesian Cultural Area.png|thumb|Map of [[Melanesia]]]] The [[blackbirding]] era began in Fiji in 1865 when the first [[New Hebrides|New Hebridean]] and [[Solomon Islands]] labourers were transported there to work on cotton plantations. The [[American Civil War]] had cut off the supply of cotton to the international market when the Union [[Union blockade|blockaded]] Confederate ports. Cotton cultivation was potentially an extremely profitable business. Thousands of European planters flocked to Fiji to establish plantations but found the natives unwilling to adapt to their plans. They sought labour from the Melanesian islands. On 5 July 1865 [[Ben Pease]] received the first licence to provide 40 labourers from the New Hebrides to Fiji.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.janesoceania.com/oceania_blackbirding1/index.htm |title=The Story of Blackbirding in the South Seas – Part 2 |author=Jane Resture |publisher=Janesoceania.com |access-date=9 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140307005454/http://www.janesoceania.com/oceania_blackbirding1/index.htm |archive-date=7 March 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> The British and Queensland governments tried to regulate this recruiting and transport of labour. Melanesian labourers were to be recruited for a term of three years, paid three pounds per year, issued basic clothing, and given access to the company store for supplies. Most Melanesians were recruited by deceit, usually being enticed aboard ships with gifts, and then locked up. In 1875, the chief medical officer in Fiji, Sir [[William MacGregor]], listed a mortality rate of 540 out of every 1,000 labourers. After the expiry of the three-year contract, the government required captains to transport the labourers back to their villages, but most ship captains dropped them off at the first island they sighted off the Fiji waters. The British sent warships to enforce the law ([[Pacific Islanders Protection Act 1872]] ([[35 & 36 Vict.]] c. 19)), but only a small proportion of the culprits were prosecuted. [[File:Seizure of blackbirder Daphne.jpg|thumb|Seizure of the blackbirder ''Daphne'']] A notorious incident of the blackbirding trade was the 1871 voyage of the brig ''Carl'', organised by Dr. James Patrick Murray<ref name="G. Elmslie, 1979">{{cite journal|author=Elmslie, R. G. |title=The colonial career of James Patrick Murray|journal=The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Surgery|volume=49|issue=1|pages=154–62|pmid=380544|year=1979|doi=10.1111/j.1445-2197.1979.tb06464.x}}</ref> to recruit labourers to work in the plantations of Fiji. Murray had his men reverse their collars and carry black books, to appear as church missionaries. When islanders were enticed to a religious service, Murray and his men would produce guns and force the islanders onto boats. During the voyage Murray shot about 60 islanders. He was never brought to trial for his actions, as he was given immunity in return for giving evidence against his crew members.<ref name="ReferenceA">James A. Michener and A. Grove Day (1957) "Bully Hayes, South Sea Buccaneer", in ''Rascals in Paradise'', London: Secker & Warburg.</ref><ref name="G. Elmslie, 1979"/> The captain of the ''Carl'', Joseph Armstrong, was later sentenced to death.<ref name="G. Elmslie, 1979"/><ref>''Sydney Morning Herald'', 20–23 Nov 1872, 1 March 1873</ref> In addition to the blackbirded labour from other Pacific islands, thousands of people indigenous to the Fijian archipelago were sold into slavery on the plantations. As the white settler backed Cakobau government, and later the British colonial government, subjugated areas in Fiji under its power, the resultant prisoners of war were regularly sold at auction to the planters. This provided a source of revenue for the government and also dispersed the rebels to different, often isolated islands where the plantations were located. The land that was occupied by these people before they became slaves was then also sold for additional revenue. An example of this is the Lovoni people of Ovalau, who after being defeated in a war with the Cakobau government in 1871, were rounded up and sold to the settlers at £6 per head. Two thousand Lovoni men, women and children were sold, and their period of slavery lasted five years.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article60865675 |title=A FIJIAN PLANTER'S CONFESSION. |work=[[Empire (newspaper)|Empire]] |issue=6379 |location=New South Wales, Australia |date=16 September 1872 |access-date=13 April 2018 |page=3 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref> Likewise, after the Kai Colo wars in 1873, thousands of people from the hill tribes of Viti Levu were sent to Levuka and sold into slavery.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article198499905 |title=GENERAL NEWS. |work=[[The Leader (Melbourne)|Leader]] |volume=XXVII |issue=940 |location=Victoria, Australia |date=3 January 1874 |access-date=13 April 2018 |page=24 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref> Warnings from the Royal Navy stationed in the area that buying these people was illegal were largely given without enforcement, and the British consul in Fiji, Edward Bernard Marsh, regularly turned a blind eye to this type of labour trade.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article60874042 |title=NINE MONTHS IN FIJI AND OTHER ISLANDS. |work=[[Empire (newspaper)|Empire]] |issue=6014 |location=New South Wales, Australia |date=13 July 1871 |access-date=13 April 2018 |page=3 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref> === Colonisation === {{Main|Colony of Fiji|British Western Pacific Territories}} Despite achieving military victories over the Kai Colo, the Cakobau government was faced with problems of legitimacy and economic viability. Indigenous Fijians and white settlers refused to pay taxes, and the cotton price had collapsed. With these major issues in mind, John Bates Thurston approached the British government, at Cakobau's request, with another offer to cede the islands. The newly elected [[Conservative Party (UK)|Tory]] British government under [[Benjamin Disraeli]] encouraged expansion of the empire and was therefore much more sympathetic to annexing Fiji than it had been previously. The murder of Bishop [[John Patteson (bishop)|John Patteson]] of the [[Melanesian Mission]] at [[Nukapu]] in the [[Reef Islands]] had provoked public outrage, which was compounded by the massacre by crew members of more than 150 Fijians on board the brig ''Carl.'' Two British commissioners were sent to Fiji to investigate the possibility of an annexation. The question was complicated by maneuverings for power between Cakobau and his old rival, Ma'afu, with both men vacillating for many months. On 21 March 1874, Cakobau made a final offer, which the British accepted. On 23 September, [[Hercules Robinson, 1st Baron Rosmead|Sir Hercules Robinson]], soon to be appointed the British Governor of Fiji, arrived on HMS ''Dido'' and received Cakobau with a royal 21-gun salute. After some vacillation, Cakobau agreed to renounce his ''Tui Viti'' title, retaining the title of ''Vunivalu'', or Protector. The formal cession took place on 10 October 1874, when Cakobau, Ma'afu, and some of the senior chiefs of Fiji signed two copies of the Deed of Cession. Thus the Colony of Fiji was founded; 96 years of British rule followed.<ref>Sarah Searight, "The British Acquisition of Fiji" ''History Today'' (Nov 1972), pp 806–813, online</ref> ==== Measles epidemic of 1875 ==== To celebrate the annexation of Fiji, Hercules Robinson, who was [[Governor of New South Wales]] at the time, took Cakobau and his two sons to [[Sydney]]. There was a [[measles]] outbreak in that city and the three Fijians all came down with the disease. On returning to Fiji, the colonial administrators decided not to quarantine the ship on which the convalescents travelled. This was despite the British having a very extensive knowledge of the devastating effect of infectious disease on an unexposed population. In 1875–76 the resulting epidemic of measles killed over 40,000 Fijians,<ref>[http://www.fiji.gov.fj/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=645:our-country&catid=68:about-fiji-&Itemid=196 "Historical Time line"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629140914/http://www.fiji.gov.fj/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=645%3Aour-country&catid=68%3Aabout-fiji-&Itemid=196 |date=29 June 2011 }}. Fiji government.</ref> about one-third of the Fijian population. Some Fijians allege that this failure of quarantine was a deliberate action to introduce the disease into the country. Historians have found no such evidence; the disease spread before the new British governor and colonial medical officers had arrived, and no quarantine rules existed under the outgoing regime.<ref>[[#Gravelle|Gravelle]], pp. 139–143</ref><ref>David M. Morens, "Measles in Fiji, 1875: thoughts on the history of emerging infectious diseases." ''Pacific Health Dialog'' 5#1 (1998): 119–128 [http://invisibleworld.org/MeaslesinFiji1875.pdf online].</ref> ===== Sir Arthur Gordon and the "Little War" ===== [[File:Sir_Arthur_Hamilton_Gordon.jpg|thumb|left|Governor Arthur Hamilton Gordon]] Robinson was replaced as Governor of Fiji in June 1875 by [[Arthur Hamilton-Gordon, 1st Baron Stanmore|Sir Arthur Hamilton Gordon]]. Gordon was immediately faced with an insurgency of the Qalimari and Kai Colo people. In early 1875, colonial administrator [[Edgar Leopold Layard]] had met with thousands of highland clans at Navuso to formalise their subjugation to British rule and Christianity. Layard and his delegation managed to spread the measles epidemic to the highlanders, causing mass deaths in this population. As a result, anger at the British colonists flared throughout the region, and a widespread uprising quickly took hold. Villages along the Sigatoka River and in the highlands above this area refused British control, and Gordon was tasked with quashing this rebellion.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gordon|first1=Arthur Hamilton|title=Letters and Notes written during the disturbances in the highlands of Viti Levu, 1876|date=1879|publisher=R&R Clark|location=Edinburgh|url=https://archive.org/details/lettersandnotes01stangoog}}</ref> In what Gordon termed the "Little War", the suppression of this uprising took the form of two co-ordinated military campaigns in the western half of Viti Levu. The first was conducted by Gordon's second cousin, Arthur John Lewis Gordon, against the Qalimari insurgents along the Sigatoka River. The second campaign was led by [[Louis Knollys]] against the Kai Colo in the mountains to the north of the river. Governor Gordon invoked a type of martial law in the area where Arthur John Lewis Gordon and Knollys had absolute power to conduct their missions outside of any restrictions of legislation. The two groups of rebels were kept isolated from each other by a force led by Walter Carew and [[George Le Hunte]] who were stationed at Nasaucoko. Carew also ensured the rebellion did not spread east by securing the loyalty of the Wainimala people of the eastern highlands. The war involved the use of the soldiers of the old Native Regiment of Cakobau supported by around 1,500 Christian Fijian volunteers from other areas of Viti Levu. The colonial [[New Zealand Government]] provided most of the advanced weapons for the army including 100 [[Snider–Enfield|Snider rifles]]. The campaign along the Sigatoka River was conducted under a [[scorched earth]] policy whereby numerous rebel villages were burnt and their fields ransacked. After the capture and destruction of the main fortified towns of Koroivatuma, Bukutia and Matanavatu, the Qalimari surrendered ''en masse''. Those not killed in the fighting were taken prisoner and sent to the coastal town of Cuvu. This included 827 men, women and children as well as Mudu, the leader of the insurgents. The women and children were distributed to places like [[Nadi]] and [[Nadroga-Navosa Province|Nadroga]]. Of the men, 15 were sentenced to death at a hastily conducted trial at [[Sigatoka]]. Governor Gordon was present, but chose to leave the judicial responsibility to his relative, Arthur John Lewis Gordon. Four were hanged and ten, including Mudu, were shot with one prisoner managing to escape. By the end of proceedings the governor noted that "my feet were literally stained with the blood that I had shed".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gordon|first1=Arthur Hamilton|title=Letters and Notes Vol. 1|date=1879|page=[https://archive.org/details/lettersandnotes01stangoog/page/n469 441]|url=https://archive.org/details/lettersandnotes01stangoog|publisher=Privately printed by R . and R. Clark}}</ref> The northern campaign against the Kai Colo in the highlands was similar but involved removing the rebels from large, well protected caves in the region. Knollys managed to clear the caves "after some considerable time and large expenditure of ammunition". The occupants of these caves included whole communities, and as a result many men, women and children were either killed or wounded in these operations. The rest were taken prisoner and sent to the towns on the northern coast. The chief medical officer in British Fiji, William MacGregor, also took part both in killing Kai Colo and tending to their wounded. After the caves were taken, the Kai Colo surrendered and their leader, Bisiki, was captured. Various trials were held, mostly at Nasaucoko under Le Hunte, and 32 men were either hanged or shot including Bisiki, who was killed trying to escape.<ref name="Letters and Notes Vol. 2">{{cite book|last1=Gordon|first1=Arthur Hamilton|title=Letters and Notes Vol. 2|date=1879|url=https://archive.org/details/lettersandnotes00stangoog|publisher=Privately printed by R . and R. Clark}}</ref> By the end of October 1876, the "Little War" was over, and Gordon had succeeded in vanquishing the rebels in the interior of Viti Levu. Remaining insurgents were sent into exile with hard labour for up to 10 years. Some non-combatants were allowed to return to rebuild their villages, but many areas in the highlands were ordered by Gordon to remain depopulated and in ruins. Gordon also constructed a military fortress, Fort Canarvon, at the headwaters of the Sigatoka River where a large contingent of soldiers were based to maintain British control. He renamed the Native Regiment, the Armed Native Constabulary to lessen its appearance of being a military force.<ref name="Letters and Notes Vol. 2"/> To further consolidate social control throughout the colony, Governor Gordon introduced a system of appointed chiefs and village constables in the various districts to both enact his orders and report any disobedience from the populace. Gordon adopted the chiefly titles ''Roko'' and ''Buli'' to describe these deputies and established a [[Great Council of Chiefs]] which was directly subject to his authority as Supreme Chief. This body remained in existence until being suspended by the military-backed interim government in 2007 and only abolished in 2012. Gordon also extinguished the ability of Fijians to own, buy or sell land as individuals, the control being transferred to colonial authorities.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=France|first1=Peter|title=The founding of an orthodoxy: Sir Arthur Gordon and the doctrine of the Fijian way of life|journal=Journal of the Polynesian Society|date=1968|volume=77|issue=1|pages=6–32|url=http://www.jps.auckland.ac.nz/document/Volume_77_1968/Volume_77%2C_No._1/The_founding_of_an_orthodoxy%3A_Sir_Arthur_Gordon_and_the_doctrine_of_the_Fijian_way_of_life%2C_by_Peter_France%2C_p_6_-_32|access-date=16 April 2018|archive-date=22 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322062652/https://www.jps.auckland.ac.nz/document/Volume_77_1968/Volume_77%2C_No._1/The_founding_of_an_orthodoxy%3A_Sir_Arthur_Gordon_and_the_doctrine_of_the_Fijian_way_of_life%2C_by_Peter_France%2C_p_6_-_32|url-status=dead}}</ref> ==== Indian indenture system in Fiji ==== {{main|Indian indenture system|Indian indenture ships to Fiji|Repatriation of indentured Indians from Fiji}} Gordon decided in 1878 to import indentured labourers from India to work on the sugarcane fields that had taken the place of the cotton plantations. The 463 Indians arrived on 14 May 1879 – the first of some 61,000 that were to come before the scheme ended in 1916. The plan involved bringing the Indian workers to Fiji on a five-year contract, after which they could return to India at their own expense; if they chose to renew their contract for a second five-year term, they would be given the option of returning to India at the government's expense, or remaining in Fiji. The great majority chose to stay. The Queensland Act, which regulated indentured labour in Queensland, was made law in Fiji also. Between 1879 and 1916, tens of thousands of Indians moved to Fiji to work as indentured labourers, especially on sugarcane plantations. Given the steady influx of ships carrying indentured Indians to Fiji up until 1916, repatriated Indians generally boarded these same ships on their return voyage. The total number of repatriates under the Fiji indenture system is recorded as 39,261, while the number of arrivals is said to have been 60,553. Because the return figure includes children born in Fiji, many of the indentured Indians never returned to India. ==== Tuka rebellions ==== With almost all aspects of indigenous Fijian social life being controlled by the British colonial authorities, a number of charismatic individuals preaching dissent and return to pre-colonial culture were able to forge a following amongst the disenfranchised. These movements were called Tuka, which roughly translates as "those who stand up". The first Tuka movement was led by Ndoongumoy, better known as Navosavakandua, which means "he who speaks only once". He told his followers that if they returned to traditional ways and worshipped traditional deities such as Degei and Rokola, their current condition would be transformed, with the whites and their puppet Fijian chiefs being subservient to them. Navosavakandua was previously exiled from the Viti Levu highlands in 1878 for disturbing the peace, and the British quickly arrested him and his followers after this open display of rebellion. He was again exiled, this time to [[Rotuma]] where he died soon after his 10-year sentence ended.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Brewster|first1=Adolph|title=Hill tribes of Fiji|date=1922|page=[https://archive.org/details/hilltribesoffiji00brew/page/236 236]|url=https://archive.org/details/hilltribesoffiji00brew|publisher=London Seeley, Service}}</ref> Other Tuka organisations, however, soon appeared. The British colonial administration ruthlessly suppressed both the leaders and followers, with figureheads such as Sailose being banished to an asylum for 12 years. In 1891, entire populations of villages who were sympathetic to the Tuka ideology were deported as punishment.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kaplan|first1=Martha|title=Neither Cargo nor Cult|date=1995|publisher=Duke University Press|pages=100–118|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3ey0ms3khaAC|isbn=978-0822315933}}</ref> Three years later in the highlands of Vanua Levu, where locals had re-engaged in traditional religion, Governor Thurston ordered in the Armed Native Constabulary to destroy the towns and the religious relics. Leaders were jailed and villagers exiled or forced to amalgamate into government-run communities.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Nicole|first1=Robert|title=Disturbing History|date=2011|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/book/1607|isbn=9780824860981|access-date=16 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180416134822/https://muse.jhu.edu/book/1607|archive-date=16 April 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> Later, in 1914, [[Apolosi Nawai]] came to the forefront of Fijian Tuka resistance by founding Viti Kabani, a co-operative company that would legally monopolise the agricultural sector and boycott European planters. The British and their proxy Council of Chiefs were not able to prevent the Viti Kabani's rise, and again the colonists were forced to send in the Armed Native Constabulary. Apolosi and his followers were arrested in 1915, and the company collapsed in 1917. Over the next 30 years, Apolosi was re-arrested, jailed and exiled, with the British viewing him as a threat right up to his death in 1946.<ref>[[#Gravelle|Gravelle]], pp. 179–183</ref> ====World War I and II==== Fiji was only peripherally involved in World War I. One memorable incident occurred in September 1917 when Count [[Felix von Luckner]] arrived at [[Wakaya Island]], off the eastern coast of Viti Levu, after his raider, {{SMS|Seeadler|1888|6}}, had [[Ship grounding|run aground]] in the [[Cook Islands]] following the shelling of [[Papeete]] in the [[French colonial empire|French colony]] of [[Tahiti]]. On 21 September, the district police inspector took a number of Fijians to Wakaya, and von Luckner, not realising that they were unarmed, unwittingly surrendered. Citing unwillingness to exploit the Fijian people, the colonial authorities did not permit Fijians to enlist. One Fijian of chiefly rank, a great-grandson of Cakobau, joined the [[French Foreign Legion]] and received France's highest military decoration, the [[Croix de guerre 1914–1918 (France)|Croix de Guerre]]. After going on to complete a law degree at [[Oxford University]], this same chief returned to Fiji in 1921 as both a war hero and the country's first-ever university graduate. In the years that followed, [[Lala Sukuna|Ratu Sir Lala Sukuna]], as he was later known, established himself as the most powerful chief in Fiji and forged embryonic institutions for what would later become the modern Fijian nation. [[File:Flag of Fiji (1924–1970).svg|thumb|Flag of Fiji 1924–1970]] By the time of World War II, the United Kingdom had reversed its policy of not enlisting natives, and many thousands of Fijians volunteered for the [[Fiji Infantry Regiment]], which was under the command of [[Edward Cakobau|Ratu Sir Edward Cakobau]], another great-grandson of Cakobau. The regiment was attached to New Zealand and Australian army units during the war. Because of its central location, Fiji was selected as a training base for the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]]. An airstrip was built at [[Nadi]] (later to become an international airport), and gun emplacements studded the coast. Fijians gained a reputation for bravery in the [[Solomon Islands campaign]], with one war correspondent describing their ambush tactics as "death with velvet gloves". Corporal [[Sefanaia Sukanaivalu]], of Yucata, was [[Posthumous award|posthumously]] awarded the [[Victoria Cross]], as a result of his bravery in the [[Bougainville campaign|Battle of Bougainville]]. ====Responsible government and independence==== [[File:Kamisese Mara.jpg|thumb|left|[[Kamisese Mara]]]] A constitutional conference was held in [[London]] in July 1965 to discuss constitutional changes with a view to introducing responsible government. Indo-Fijians, led by [[A. D. Patel]], demanded the immediate introduction of full self-government, with a fully elected legislature, to be elected by universal suffrage on a common voters' roll. These demands were vigorously rejected by the ethnic Fijian delegation, who still feared loss of control over natively owned land and resources should an Indo-Fijian dominated government come to power. The British made it clear, however, that they were determined to bring Fiji to self-government and eventual independence. Realizing that they had no choice, Fiji's chiefs decided to negotiate for the best deal they could get. A series of compromises led to the establishment of a cabinet system of government in 1967, with [[Kamisese Mara|Ratu Kamisese Mara]] as the first [[Chief Minister of Fiji|Chief Minister]]. Ongoing negotiations between Mara and [[Sidiq Koya]], who had taken over the leadership of the mainly Indo-Fijian [[National Federation Party]] on Patel's death in 1969, led to a second constitutional conference in London, in April 1970, at which Fiji's Legislative Council agreed on a compromise electoral formula and a timetable for independence as a fully sovereign and independent nation within the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]]. The Legislative Council would be replaced with a bicameral [[Parliament of Fiji|Parliament]], with a [[Senate of Fiji|Senate]] dominated by Fijian chiefs and a popularly elected [[House of Representatives of Fiji|House of Representatives]]. In the 52-member House, Native Fijians and Indo-Fijians would each be allocated 22 seats, of which 12 would represent [[communal constituencies]] comprising voters registered on strictly ethnic roles, and another 10 representing [[national constituencies]] to which members were allocated by ethnicity but elected by universal suffrage. A further 8 seats were reserved for "[[general electors]]" – [[European ethnic groups|Europeans]], [[Chinese people|Chinese]], [[Banaba Island|Banaban Islanders]], and other minorities; 3 of these were "communal" and 5 "national". With this compromise, it was agreed that Fiji would become independent. The British flag, the [[Union Jack]], was lowered for the last time at sunset on 9 October 1970 in the capital Suva. The Fijian flag was raised after dawn on the morning of 10 October 1970; the country had officially become independent at midnight. === Independence === ====1987 coups d'état==== The British granted Fiji independence in 1970. Democratic rule was interrupted by two [[1987 Fijian coups d'état|military coups]] in 1987<ref name="RSB">{{cite book |last1=Blum |first1=William |title=Rogue State |date=2002 |publisher=Common Courage Press |location=Monroe |isbn=184277221X |pages=153–154}}</ref> precipitated by a growing perception that the government was dominated by the [[Indians in Fiji|Indo-Fijian]] (Indian) community. The second 1987 coup saw both the Fijian monarchy and the [[Governor-General of Fiji|Governor General]] replaced by a non-executive president and the name of the country changed from ''[[British Dominions|Dominion]] of Fiji'' to ''Republic of Fiji'' and then in 1997 to ''Republic of the Fiji Islands''. The two coups and the accompanying civil unrest contributed to heavy Indo-Fijian emigration; the resulting population loss resulted in economic difficulties and ensured that Melanesians became the majority.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.migrationinformation.org/Profiles/display.cfm?ID=110|title=Fiji Islands: From Immigration to Emigration|last=Lal|first=Brij V|date=April 2003|publisher=Migration Policy Institute|access-date=14 June 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100304101928/http://www.migrationinformation.org/Profiles/display.cfm?ID=110|archive-date=4 March 2010|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1990, the new constitution institutionalised ethnic Fijian domination of the political system. The [[Group Against Racial Discrimination]] (GARD) was formed to oppose the unilaterally imposed constitution and to restore the 1970 constitution. In 1992 [[Sitiveni Rabuka]], the Lieutenant Colonel who had carried out the 1987 coup, became Prime Minister following elections held under the new constitution. Three years later, Rabuka established the Constitutional Review Commission, which in 1997 wrote a new constitution which was supported by most leaders of the indigenous Fijian and Indo-Fijian communities. Fiji was re-admitted to the [[Commonwealth of Nations]]. ====2000 coup d'état==== In 2000, [[2000 Fijian coup d'état|a coup]] was instigated by [[George Speight]], which effectively toppled the government of [[Mahendra Chaudhry]], who in 1997 had become the country's first Indo-Fijian Prime Minister following the adoption of the new constitution. Commodore [[Frank Bainimarama]] assumed executive power after the resignation, possibly forced, of President Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara. Later in 2000, Fiji was rocked by [[Mutinies of the 2000 Fijian coup d'état|two mutinies]] when rebel soldiers went on a rampage at Suva's Queen Elizabeth Barracks. The [[High Court of Fiji|High Court]] ordered the reinstatement of the constitution, and in September 2001, to restore democracy, a general election was held which was won by interim Prime Minister [[Laisenia Qarase]]'s [[Soqosoqo Duavata ni Lewenivanua]] party.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lal|first=Brij V.|date=2002|title=In George Speight's Shadow: Fiji General Elections of 2001|journal=The Journal of Pacific History|volume=37|issue=1|pages=87–101|jstor=25169576|doi=10.1080/00223340220139298|s2cid=162166648}}</ref> In 2005, the Qarase government amid much controversy proposed a [[Reconciliation, Tolerance, and Unity Bill|Reconciliation and Unity Commission]] with power to recommend compensation for victims of the 2000 coup and amnesty for its perpetrators. However, the military, especially the nation's top military commander, Frank Bainimarama, strongly opposed this bill. Bainimarama agreed with detractors who said that to grant amnesty to supporters of the present government who had played a role in the violent coup was a sham. His attack on the legislation, which continued unremittingly throughout May and into June and July, further strained his already tense relationship with the government. ====2006 coup d'état==== In late November and early December 2006, Bainimarama was instrumental in the [[2006 Fijian coup d'état]]. Bainimarama handed down a list of demands to Qarase after a bill was put forward to parliament, part of which would have offered pardons to participants in the 2000 coup attempt. He gave Qarase an ultimatum date of 4 December to accede to these demands or to resign from his post. Qarase adamantly refused either to concede or resign, and on 5 December President Ratu [[Josefa Iloilo]] signed a legal order dissolving the parliament after meeting with Bainimarama. Citing corruption in the government, Bainimarama staged a military takeover on 5 December 2006 against the prime minister that he had installed after a 2000 coup. The commodore took over the powers of the presidency and dissolved the parliament, paving the way for the military to continue the takeover. The coup was the culmination of weeks of speculation following conflict between the elected prime minister, Laisenia Qarase, and Bainimarama. Bainimarama had repeatedly issued demands and deadlines to the prime minister. A particular issue was previously pending legislation to pardon those involved in the 2000 coup. Bainimarama named [[Jona Senilagakali]] as caretaker prime minister. The next week Bainimarama said he would ask the Great Council of Chiefs to restore executive powers to the president, Ratu Josefa Iloilo.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/section/story.cfm?c_id=2&ObjectID=10414033 |title=Fiji – alone under the gun |work=[[The New Zealand Herald]] |author=Phil Taylor |date=6 December 2006 |access-date=30 September 2007}}</ref> On 4 January 2007, the military announced that it was restoring executive power to Iloilo,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.fijivillage.com/artman/publish/article_34881.shtml |title=Commander hands back executive authority to Ratu Iloilo |publisher=FijiVillage.com |date=4 January 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070107051230/http://www.fijivillage.com/artman/publish/article_34881.shtml |archive-date=7 January 2007 }}</ref> who made a broadcast endorsing the actions of the military.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.fijilive.com/news/show/news/2007/01/04/04fijilive09.html |title=I support army takeover: Iloilo |publisher=Fijilive |date=4 January 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070125100134/http://www.fijilive.com/news/show/news/2007/01/04/04fijilive09.html |archive-date=25 January 2007 }}</ref> The next day, Iloilo named Bainimarama as the interim prime minister,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.fijilive.com/news/show/news/2007/01/05/05fijilive08.html |title=President swears in interim PM |publisher=Fijilive |date=5 January 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070125100307/http://www.fijilive.com/news/show/news/2007/01/05/05fijilive08.html |archive-date=25 January 2007 }}</ref> indicating that the military was still effectively in control. In the wake of the takeover, reports emerged of alleged intimidation of some of those critical of the interim regime. ====2009 transfer of power==== {{main|2009 Fijian constitutional crisis}} In April 2009, the [[Court of Appeal of Fiji|Fiji Court of Appeal]] overturned the High Court decision that Bainimarama's takeover of Qarase's government was lawful and declared the interim government to be illegal. Bainimarama agreed to step down as interim prime minister immediately, along with his government, and President Iloilo was to appoint a new prime minister. President Iloilo [[Obrogation|abrogated]] the constitution, and removed all office holders under the constitution including all judges and the governor of the Central Bank. In his own words, he "appoint[ed] [him]self as the Head of the State of Fiji under a new legal order".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fiji.gov.fj/publish/page_14712.shtml |title=President's Address to the Nation |access-date=22 April 2009 |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090818171844/http://www.fiji.gov.fj/publish/page_14712.shtml |archive-date=18 August 2009 }}, fiji.gov.fj (10 April 2009).</ref> He then reappointed Bainimarama under his "New Order" as interim prime minister and imposed a "Public Emergency Regulation" limiting internal travel and allowing press censorship. On 2 May 2009, Fiji became the first nation ever to have been suspended from participation in the [[Pacific Islands Forum]], for its failure to hold democratic elections by the date promised.<ref>[http://www.forumsec.org/pages.cfm/newsroom/press-statements/2009/forum-chair-on-suspension-of-fiji-military-regime-from-pif.html Statement by Forum Chair on suspension of the Fiji military regime from the Pacific Islands Forum] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120324102614/http://www.forumsec.org/pages.cfm/newsroom/press-statements/2009/forum-chair-on-suspension-of-fiji-military-regime-from-pif.html |date=24 March 2012 }}; PIFS Press Statement (21/09), 2 May 2009</ref><ref name="RNZI_46320">{{cite web |url=http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=46320 |title=Chair of Pacific Islands Forum says Fiji has been suspended |date=2 May 2009 |website=[[Radio New Zealand International]] |access-date=30 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303132142/http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=46320 |archive-date=3 March 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> Nevertheless, it remains a member of the Forum. On 1 September 2009, Fiji was suspended from the [[Commonwealth of Nations]]. The action was taken because Bainimarama failed to hold elections by 2010 as the Commonwealth of Nations had demanded after the 2006 coup. Bainimarama stated a need for more time to end a voting system that heavily favoured ethnic Fijians at the expense of the multi-ethnic minorities. Critics claimed that he had suspended the constitution and was responsible for [[human rights]] violations by arresting and detaining opponents.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thecommonwealth.org/news/34580/213088/010909fijisuspended.htm |title=Fiji suspended from the Commonwealth |date=1 September 2009 |publisher=Commonwealth.org |access-date=2 May 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090904153829/http://www.thecommonwealth.org/news/34580/213088/010909fijisuspended.htm |archive-date=4 September 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/8231717.stm |title=Fiji suspended from Commonwealth |work=BBC News |date=1 September 2009 |access-date=2 May 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100610103352/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/8231717.stm |archive-date=10 June 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref> In his 2010 New Year's address, Bainimarama announced the lifting of the Public Emergency Regulations (PER). However, the PER was not rescinded until January 2012, and the Suva Philosophy Club was the first organisation to reorganise and convene public meetings.<ref>Fiji Times, 'PER Lifted' (12 January 2012)</ref> The PER had been put in place in April 2009 when the former constitution was abrogated. The PER had allowed restrictions on speech, public gatherings, and censorship of news media and had given security forces added powers. He also announced a nationwide consultation process leading to a new constitution under which the 2014 elections were held. The official name of the country was reverted to ''Republic of Fiji'' in February 2011.<ref>In February 2011, the prime minister's office issued a statement saying that the name of the state had officially changed from the Republic of the Fiji Islands to the '''Republic of Fiji''' and that the name written in the 1997 constitution was now void (the constitution has been suspended since April 2009). Compare: {{cite web|publisher=Fijivillage.com|url= http://fijivillage.com/news/Country-is-now-officially-called-Republic-of-Fiji-5s9r2k/|title= Country is now officially called Republic of Fiji|date= 3 February 2011|access-date= 22 June 2016|url-status=live|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160622152850/http://fijivillage.com/news/Country-is-now-officially-called-Republic-of-Fiji-5s9r2k/|archive-date= 22 June 2016|quote = The country is now officially called Republic of Fiji.<br />Permanent Secretary at the Prime Minister's Office, Colonel Pio Tikoduadua said the name, Republic of the Fiji Islands, as stated in the 1997 constitution is no longer applicable.}}</ref> ==== Since 2014 ==== On 14 March 2014, the [[Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group]] voted to change Fiji's full suspension from the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] to a suspension from the councils of the Commonwealth, allowing them to participate in a number of Commonwealth activities, including the [[2014 Commonwealth Games]].<ref>[http://thecommonwealth.org/media/news/fiji-flag-flies-again-following-commonwealth-ministerial-action-group-decision Fiji flag flies again following Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group decision] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140809015552/http://thecommonwealth.org/media/news/fiji-flag-flies-again-following-commonwealth-ministerial-action-group-decision |date=9 August 2014 }}. thecommonwealth.org. 17 March 2014</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Turagaiviu|first1=Elenoa|title=Fiji's Commonwealth suspension partially lifted|url=http://www.fbc.com.fj/fiji/18370/fiji%E2%80%99s-commonwealth-suspension-partially-lifted|access-date=5 December 2017|publisher=FBC News|date=15 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171206140102/http://www.fbc.com.fj/fiji/18370/fiji%E2%80%99s-commonwealth-suspension-partially-lifted|archive-date=6 December 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> The suspension was lifted in September 2014.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://thecommonwealth.org/media/press-release/fiji-rejoins-commonwealth-full-member|title=Fiji rejoins Commonwealth as a full member|publisher=The Commonwealth|date=26 September 2014|access-date=28 September 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140927121336/http://thecommonwealth.org/media/press-release/fiji-rejoins-commonwealth-full-member|archive-date=27 September 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[FijiFirst]] party, led by Prime Minister Frank Bainimarama, won outright majority in the country's 51-seat parliament both in 2014 [[2014 Fijian general election|election]] and narrowly in 2018 [[2018 Fijian general election|election]].<ref>{{cite news |agency=Australian Associated Press |title=Fiji election: Bainimarama returned as PM in slim victory |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/nov/18/fiji-election-bainimarama-returned-as-pm-in-slim-victory |work=the Guardian |date=18 November 2018 |language=en}}</ref> In October 2021, [[Wiliame Katonivere|Tui Macuata Ratu Wiliame Katonivere]] was elected the new [[President of Fiji]] by the parliament.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ligaiula |first1=Pita |title=Ratu Wiliame Katonivere is Fiji's new President {{!}} PINA |url=https://pina.com.fj/2021/10/22/ratu-wiliame-katonivere-is-fijis-new-president/}}</ref> On 24 December 2022, [[Sitiveni Rabuka]], the head of the [[People's Alliance (Fiji)|People's Alliance]] (PAP), became Fiji's 12th prime minister, succeeding Bainimarama, following the December 2022 [[2022 Fijian general election|general election]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Sitiveni 'Rambo' Rabuka confirmed as Fiji's new prime minister |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/12/24/sitiveni-rambo-rabuka-confirmed-as-fijis-new-prime-minister |work=www.aljazeera.com |language=en}}</ref> Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. 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