Council of Chalcedon

==Background==
In 325, the first ecumenical council ([[First Council of Nicaea]]) determined that Jesus Christ was God, "[[consubstantiality|consubstantial]]" with the Father, and rejected the [[Arianism|Arian contention]] that Jesus was a created being. This was reaffirmed at the [[First Council of Constantinople]] (381) and the [[First Council of Ephesus]] (431).

===Eutychian controversy===
{{Main|Eutyches}}
About two years after [[Cyril of Alexandria]]'s death in 444, an aged [[monk]] from Constantinople named [[Eutyches]] began teaching a subtle variation on the traditional [[Christology]] in an attempt to stop what he saw as a new outbreak of [[Nestorianism]].<ref name=EB>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Eutyches|title=Eutyches &#124; Biography, Eutychianism, Beliefs, & Facts|website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> He claimed to be a faithful follower of Cyril's teaching, which was declared orthodox in the Union of 433.

Cyril had taught that "There is only one ''physis'', since it is the Incarnation, of God the Word." Cyril apparently thought that the [[Greek language|Greek]] word ''physis'' meant approximately what the [[Latin]] word ''persona'' (person) means, while most Greek theologians would have interpreted that word to mean ''natura'' (nature). The energy and imprudence with which Eutyches asserted his opinions led to his being misunderstood. Thus, many believed that Eutyches was advocating [[Docetism]], a sort of reversal of [[Arianism]] – where Arius had denied the [[consubstantial]] divinity of [[Jesus]], Eutyches seemed to be denying that Jesus was fully human.<ref name=EB/> [[Pope Leo I]] wrote that Eutyches' error seemed to be more from a lack of skill than from malice.

Eutyches had been accusing various personages of covert Nestorianism. In November 448, [[Flavian of Constantinople|Flavian, Bishop of Constantinople]] held a local synod regarding a point of discipline connected with the province of [[Sardis]]. At the end of the session of this synod one of those inculpated, [[Eusebius of Dorylaeum|Eusebius, Bishop of Dorylaeum]], brought a counter charge of heresy against the [[archimandrite]].<ref>{{citation-attribution|1=[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05631a.htm Chapman, John. "Eutyches." The Catholic Encyclopedia] Vol. 5. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1909. 6 February 2019}}</ref> Eusebius demanded that Eutyches be removed from office. Flavian preferred that the bishop and the archimandrite sort out their differences, but as his suggestion went unheeded, Eutyches was summoned to clarify his position regarding the nature of Christ. Eventually Eutyches reluctantly appeared, but his position was considered to be theologically unsophisticated, and the synod finding his answers unresponsive condemned and exiled him.<ref name=EB/> Flavian sent a full account to Pope Leo I. Although it had been accidentally delayed, Leo wrote a compendious explanation of the whole doctrine involved, and sent it to Flavian as a formal and authoritative decision of the question.<ref name=chapman>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05019a.htm Chapman, John. "Dioscurus." The Catholic Encyclopedia] Vol. 5. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1909. 8 February 2019</ref>

Eutyches appealed against the decision, labeling Flavian a Nestorian, and received the support of [[Pope Dioscorus I of Alexandria]]. [[John Anthony McGuckin]] sees an "innate rivalry" between the Sees of Alexandria and Constantinople.<ref>McGuckin, John Anthony. ''St. Cyril of Alexandria: The Christological Controversy''. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1994. p. 12 {{ISBN|9789004099906}}</ref> Dioscurus, imitating his predecessors in assuming a primacy over Constantinople, held his own synod which annulled the sentence of Flavian, and absolved Eutyches.

===Latrocinium of Ephesus===
{{Main|Second Council of Ephesus}}

Through the influence of the court official Chrysaphius, godson of Eutyches, in 449, the competing claims between the Patriarchs of Constantinople and Alexandria led Emperor [[Theodosius II]] to call a [[Second Council of Ephesus|council]] which was held in [[Ephesus]] in 449,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hughes|first=Philip|title=A Popular History of the Catholic Church|publisher=Image Books (Doubleday)|year=1954|location=Garden City, New York|page=37}}</ref> with Dioscorus presiding.

Pope Leo sent four legates to represent him and expressed his regret that the shortness of the notice must prevent the presence of any other bishop of the West.<ref name=chapman/> He provided his legates, one of whom died en route, with a letter addressed to Flavian explaining Rome's position in the controversy. Leo's letter, now known as [[Leo's Tome]], confessed that Christ had two natures, and was not of or from two natures.<ref name="SevenCouncils">{{cite web |url=http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-14/Npnf2-14-59.htm#P3825_663549 |title=NPNF2-14. The Seven Ecumenical Councils &#124; Christian Classics Ethereal Library |publisher=Ccel.org |date=2005-06-01 |access-date=2013-08-25}}</ref>

On August 8, 449 the [[Second Council of Ephesus]] began its first session. The Acts of the first session of this synod were read at the Council of Chalcedon, 451, and are thus preserved. The remainder of the Acts (the first session being wanting) are known through a Syriac translation by a Miaphysite monk, written in the year 535 and published from a manuscript in the British Museum.<ref name=jchap>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05495a.htm Chapman, John. "Robber Council of Ephesus." The Catholic Encyclopedia] Vol. 5. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1909. 9 February 2019</ref> Nonetheless, there are somewhat different interpretations as to what actually transpired. The question before the council by order of the emperor was whether Flavian, in a synod held by him at Constantinople in November, 448, had justly deposed and excommunicated the Archimandrite Eutyches for refusing to admit two natures in Christ.

Dioscorus began the council by banning all members of the November 448 synod which had deposed Eutyches from sitting as judges. He then introduced Eutyches who publicly professed that while Christ had two natures before the incarnation, the two natures had merged to form a single nature after the incarnation. Of the 130 assembled bishops, 111 voted to rehabilitate Eutyches.

Throughout these proceedings, [[Pope Hilarius|Hilary]] (one of the papal legates) repeatedly called for the reading of Leo's Tome, but was ignored. The Eastern Orthodox Church has very different accounts of The Second Council of Ephesus. Pope Dioscorus requested deferring reading of Leo's Tome, as it was not seen as necessary to start with, and could be read later. This was seen as a rebuke to the representatives from the Church of Rome not reading the Tome from the start.

Dioscorus then moved to depose Flavian of Constantinople and Eusebius of Dorylaeum on the grounds that they taught the Word had been made flesh and not just assumed flesh from the Virgin and that Christ had two natures. When Flavian and Hilary objected, Dioscorus called for a pro-monophysite mob to enter the church which assaulted Flavian as he clung to the altar. Flavian died three days later. Dioscorus then placed Eusebius of Dorylaeum under arrest and demanded the assembled bishops approve his actions. Fearing the mob, they all did. The papal legates refused to attend the second session at which several more orthodox bishops were deposed, including Ibas of Edessa, Irenaeus of Tyre, Domnus of Antioch, and Theodoret. Dioscorus then had Cyril of Alexandria's Twelve Anathemas declared orthodox<ref>[[Frend, W. H. C.]], ''The Rise of the Monophysite Movement'', Cambridge University Press, 1972, pps. 41–43</ref> with the intent of condemning any confession other than one nature in Christ.

According to a letter to the Empress [[Pulcheria]] collected among the letters of Leo I, Hilary apologized for not delivering to her the pope's letter after the synod, but owing to Dioscurus, who tried to hinder his going either to Rome or to Constantinople, he had great difficulty in making his escape in order to bring to the pontiff the news of the result of the council.<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07348b.htm Kirsch, Johann Peter. "Pope Saint Hilarus." The Catholic Encyclopedia] Vol. 7. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1910. 9 February 2019</ref> Hilary, who later became pope and dedicated an oratory in the [[Lateran Basilica]] in thanks for his life,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cfpeople.org/Books/Pope/POPEp46.htm |title=St. Hilary |access-date=2009-11-09 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100613053629/http://cfpeople.org/Books/Pope/POPEp46.htm |archive-date=2010-06-13 }}</ref> managed to escape from Constantinople and brought news of the council to Leo who immediately dubbed it a "synod of robbers"{{snd}}[[Latrocinium]]{{snd}}and refused to accept its pronouncements. The decisions of this council now threatened [[Schism (religion)|schism]] between the East and the West.

The claims that bishops being forced to approve actions, were challenged by Pope Dioscorus and the Egyptian Bishops at Chalcedon.