Communication

==Models of communication==
{{main|Models of communication}}
Models of communication are [[concept]]ual representations of the process of communication.<ref>{{harvnb|Ruben|2001|pp=[https://www.encyclopedia.com/media/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/models-communication 607–608]|loc=Models Of Communication}}</ref> Their goal is to provide a simplified overview of its main components. This makes it easier for researchers to formulate hypotheses, apply communication-related concepts to real-world cases, and test [[prediction]]s.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|McQuail|2008|pp=[https://www.wiley.com/en-us/The+International+Encyclopedia+of+Communication%2C+12+Volume+Set-p-9781405131995 3143–3149]|loc=Models of communication}} | {{harvnb|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 23]|loc=1. Basic Communication Models}} }}</ref> Due to their simplified presentation, they may lack the conceptual complexity needed for a comprehensive understanding of all the essential aspects of communication. They are usually presented visually in the form of [[diagram]]s showing the basic components and their interaction.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|McQuail|2008|pp=[https://www.wiley.com/en-us/The+International+Encyclopedia+of+Communication%2C+12+Volume+Set-p-9781405131995 3143–3149]|loc=Models of communication}} | {{harvnb|UMN staff|2016a|loc=[https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-2-the-communication-process/ 1.2 The Communication Process]}} | {{harvnb|Cobley|Schulz|2013|pp=[https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110240450/html 7–8]|loc=Introduction}} }}</ref>

Models of communication are often categorized based on their intended applications and how they conceptualize communication. Some models are general in the sense that they are intended for all forms of communication. Specialized models aim to describe specific forms, such as models of [[mass communication]].<ref>{{harvnb|Fiske|2011a|pp=[https://www.routledge.com/Introduction-to-Communication-Studies/Fiske/p/book/9780415596497 24, 30]|loc=2. Other models}}</ref>

One influential way to classify communication is to distinguish between linear transmission, interaction, and transaction models.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|McQuail|2008|pp=[https://www.wiley.com/en-us/The+International+Encyclopedia+of+Communication%2C+12+Volume+Set-p-9781405131995 3143–3149]|loc=Models of communication}} | {{harvnb|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 15]|loc=1. Basic Communication Models}} | {{harvnb|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLuJz-ZB828C 438]|loc=transmission models}} }}</ref> Linear transmission models focus on how a sender transmits [[information]] to a receiver. They are ''linear'' because this flow of information only goes in a single direction.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|UMN staff|2016a|loc=[https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-2-the-communication-process/ 1.2 The Communication Process]}} | {{harvnb|Kastberg|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=esLDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA56 56]}} | {{harvnb|Fielding|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2Z_vIcp9gaEC&pg=PA24 24]}} }}</ref> This view is rejected by interaction models, which include a [[feedback]] loop. Feedback is needed to describe many forms of communication, such as a conversation, where the listener may respond to a speaker by expressing their opinion or by asking for clarification. Interaction models represent the process as a form of [[two-way communication]] in which the communicators take turns sending and receiving messages.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|UMN staff|2016a|loc=[https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-2-the-communication-process/ 1.2 The Communication Process]}} |2={{harvnb|Kastberg|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=esLDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA56 56]}} |3={{harvnb|Nicotera|2009|p=176}} |4={{harvnb|Fielding|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2Z_vIcp9gaEC&pg=PA24 24]}} }}</ref> Transaction models further refine this picture by allowing representations of sending and responding at the same time. This modification is needed to describe how the listener can give feedback in a face-to-face conversation while the other person is talking. Examples are [[Non-verbal communication|non-verbal feedback]] through [[body posture]] and [[facial expression]]. Transaction models also hold that meaning is produced during communication and does not exist independently of it.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|UMN staff|2016a|loc=[https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-2-the-communication-process/ 1.2 The Communication Process]}} | {{harvnb|Nicotera|2009|p=176}} | {{harvnb|Barnlund|2013|p=48}} }}</ref>

[[File:Lasswell's model of communication.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=Diagram showing the five components of Lasswell's model: communicator, message, medium, recipient, and effect|Lasswell's model of communication, which is based on five questions corresponding to five basic components]]
All the early models, developed in the middle of the 20th century, are linear transmission models. [[Lasswell's model]], for example, is based on five fundamental questions: "Who?", "Says what?", "In which channel?", "To whom?", and "With what effect?".<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Fiske|2011a|pp=[https://www.routledge.com/Introduction-to-Communication-Studies/Fiske/p/book/9780415596497 30–31]|loc=2. Other models}} | {{harvnb|Watson|Hill|2012|p=154|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=XKP-63dSKNsC&pg=PA154 Lasswell's model of communication]}} | {{harvnb|Wenxiu|2015|pp=245–249}} }}</ref> The goal of these questions is to identify the basic components involved in the communicative process: the sender, the message, the [[Communication channel|channel]], the [[Receiver (information theory)|receiver]], and the effect.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Steinberg|2007|pp=52–53}} | {{harvnb|Tengan|Aigbavboa|Thwala|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8nQhEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT110 110]}} | {{harvnb|Berger|1995|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AfTl2r4K_wUC&pg=PA12 12–13]}} }}</ref> Lasswell's model was initially only conceived as a model of mass communication, but it has been applied to other fields as well. Some communication theorists, like Richard Braddock, have expanded it by including additional questions, like "Under what circumstances?" and "For what purpose?".<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Sapienza|Iyer|Veenstra|2015|loc=§Misconception 1: it's a static model with fixed categories}} | {{harvnb|Feicheng|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=E4pyEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA24 24]}} | {{harvnb|Braddock|1958|pp=88–93}} }}</ref>

[[File:Shannon-Weaver model of communication.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=Diagram of the Shannon–Weaver model showing the different steps of a message on its way to the destination|Shannon–Weaver model of communication, which focuses on how a message is first translated into a [[signal]] and then back into a message]]
The [[Shannon–Weaver model]] is another influential linear transmission model.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|McQuail|2008|pp=[https://www.wiley.com/en-us/The+International+Encyclopedia+of+Communication%2C+12+Volume+Set-p-9781405131995 3143–3149]|loc=Models of communication}} | {{harvnb|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLuJz-ZB828C 387]|loc=Shannon and Weaver's model}} | {{harvnb|Li|2007|pp=5439–5442}} }}</ref> It is based on the idea that a source creates a message, which is then translated into a [[signal]] by a transmitter. [[Noise]] may interfere with and distort the signal. Once the signal reaches the receiver, it is translated back into a message and made available to the destination. For a landline telephone call, the person calling is the source and their telephone is the transmitter. The transmitter translates the message into an electrical signal that travels through the wire, which acts as the channel. The person taking the call is the destination and their telephone is the receiver.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLuJz-ZB828C 387]|loc=Shannon and Weaver's model}} | {{harvnb|Fiske|2011|pp=[https://www.routledge.com/Introduction-to-Communication-Studies/Fiske/p/book/9780415596497 6–10]|loc=1. Communication theory}} | {{harvnb|Shannon|1948|pp=380–382}} }}</ref> The Shannon–Weaver model includes an in-depth discussion of how noise can distort the signal and how successful communication can be achieved despite noise. This can happen by making the message partially [[Redundancy (information theory)|redundant]] so that decoding is possible nonetheless.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Fiske|2011|pp=[https://www.routledge.com/Introduction-to-Communication-Studies/Fiske/p/book/9780415596497 10–15]|loc=1. Communication theory}} | {{harvnb|Weaver|1998|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=fRrvAAAAMAAJ 4–9, 18–19]|loc=Recent Contributions to the Mathematical Theory of Communication}} | {{harvnb|Januszewski|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mlZsIIoOaSYC&pg=PA29 29]}} }}</ref> Other influential linear transmission models include [[Models of communication#Gerbner|Gerbner's model]] and [[Source-Message-Channel-Receiver model of communication|Berlo's model]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Watson|Hill|2012|pp=112–113|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=XKP-63dSKNsC&pg=PA112 Gerbner's model of communication]}} | {{harvnb|Melkote|Steeves|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PKAi6t2e5AEC&pg=PA108 108]}} | {{harvnb|Straubhaar|LaRose|Davenport|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jUR-BAAAQBAJ&pg=PT47 18–19]}} }}</ref>

[[File:Schramm's model of communication.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=Diagram of the feedback loop in Schramm's model of communication|Schramm's model of communication, which focuses on the processes of encoding and decoding as well as feedback]]
The earliest interaction model was developed by communication theorist [[Wilbur Schramm]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Nicotera|2009|p=176}} | {{harvnb|Steinberg|1995|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VPs3kidEqXYC&pg=PA18 18]}} | {{harvnb|Bowman|Targowski|1987|pp=25–26}} }}</ref> He states that communication starts when a source has an idea and expresses it in the form of a message. This process is called ''encoding'' and happens using a [[code]], i.e. a [[sign system]] that is able to express the idea, for instance, through [[Visual communication|visual]] or auditory signs.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Nicotera|2009|p=176}} | {{harvnb|Wisely|1994|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=icMsdAGHQpEC&pg=PA90 90–91]}} | {{harvnb|Schramm|1954|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=z2aaAQAACAAJ 3–5]|loc=How communication works}} }}</ref> The message is sent to a destination, who has to decode and interpret it to understand it.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Schramm|1954|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=z2aaAQAACAAJ 3–5]|loc=How communication works}} | {{harvnb|Blythe|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rPgQRbBLdYgC&pg=188 188]}} }}</ref> In response, they formulate their own idea, encode it into a message, and send it back as a form of feedback. Another innovation of [[Schramm's model]] is that previous experience is necessary to be able to encode and decode messages. For communication to be successful, the fields of experience of source and destination have to overlap.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Wisely|1994|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=icMsdAGHQpEC&pg=PA90 90–91]}} | {{harvnb|Meng|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=b0HWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA120 120]}} | {{harvnb|Schramm|1954|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=z2aaAQAACAAJ 5–7]|loc=How communication works}} }}</ref>

The first transactional model was proposed by communication theorist [[Barnlund's model of communication|Dean Barnlund]] in 1970.<ref>{{harvnb|Hamilton|Kroll|Creel|2023|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3L2uEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT46 46]}}</ref> He understands communication as "the production of meaning, rather than the production of messages".<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Nicotera|2009|p=176}} | {{harvnb|Barnlund|2013|p=48}} }}</ref> Its goal is to decrease uncertainty and arrive at a shared [[understanding]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Barnlund|2013|p=47}} | {{harvnb|Watson|Hill|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=IdGBCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA20 20–22]}} | {{harvnb|Lawson|Gill|Feekery|Witsel|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=fIOWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA77 76–77]}} }}</ref> This happens in response to external and internal cues. Decoding is the process of ascribing meaning to them and encoding consists in producing new [[Human behavior|behavioral]] cues as a response.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Watson|Hill|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=IdGBCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA20 20–22]}} | {{harvnb|Dwyer|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=xhHiBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA12 12]}} | {{harvnb|Barnlund|2013|pp=57–60}} }}</ref>