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Do not fill this in! == History == {{Main|History of Chicago}} {{For timeline|Timeline of Chicago history}} === Beginnings === [[File:Pottawatomi Fashion at the Field Museum in Chicago.jpg|thumb|upright=1|Traditional [[Potawatomi]] regalia on display at the [[Field Museum of Natural History]]|left]]In the mid-18th century, the area was inhabited by the [[Potawatomi]], an indigenous tribe who had succeeded the [[Miami people|Miami]] and [[Sac and Fox Nation|Sauk and Fox]] peoples in this region.<ref>{{cite book |last=Keating |first=Ann Durkin |title=Chicagoland: City and Suburbs in the Railroad Age |year=2005 |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |isbn=0-226-42882-6 |lccn=2005002198 |page=25}}</ref> [[File:Chicago-fire1.jpg|thumb|upright=1|An artist's rendering of the [[Great Chicago Fire|Great Chicago Fire of 1871]]|left]] [[File:Home Insurance Building.JPG|thumb|upright=1|[[Home Insurance Building]] (1885)|left]] [[File:Looking West From Peristyle, Court of Honor and Grand Basin, 1893.jpg|thumb|upright=1|Court of Honor at the [[World's Columbian Exposition]] in 1893]] The first known permanent settler in Chicago was trader [[Jean Baptiste Point du Sable]]. Du Sable was of [[African people|African]] descent, perhaps born in the [[List of French possessions and colonies|French colony]] of [[Saint-Domingue]] (Haiti), and established the settlement in the 1780s. He is commonly known as the "Founder of Chicago".{{sfnp|Genzen|2007|pp=10–11, 14–15}}{{sfnp|Keating|2005|pp=30–31, 221}}<ref name="Swenson">{{cite web |last=Swenson |first=John W |year=1999 |title=Jean Baptiste Point de Sable—The Founder of Modern Chicago |url=http://www.earlychicago.com/essays.php?essay=7 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050116080031/http://www.earlychicago.com/essays.php?essay=7 |url-status=dead |archive-date=January 16, 2005 |work=Early Chicago |publisher=Early Chicago, Inc. |access-date=August 8, 2010 }}</ref> In 1795, following the victory of the new United States in the [[Northwest Indian War]], an area that was to be part of Chicago was turned over to the U.S. for a military post by native tribes in accordance with the [[Treaty of Greenville]]. In 1803, the [[United States Army|U.S. Army]] constructed [[Fort Dearborn]], which was destroyed during the [[War of 1812]] in the [[Battle of Fort Dearborn]] by the Potawatomi before being later rebuilt.{{sfnp|Genzen|2007|pp=16–17}} After the War of 1812, the [[Odawa people|Ottawa]], [[Ojibwe]], and Potawatomi tribes ceded additional land to the United States in the 1816 [[Treaty of St. Louis (1816)|Treaty of St. Louis]]. The Potawatomi were forcibly removed from their land after the [[1833 Treaty of Chicago]] and sent west of the [[Mississippi River]] as part of the federal policy of [[Indian removal]].{{sfnp|Buisseret|1990|pp=22–23, 68, 80–81}}{{sfnp|Keating|2005|pp=30–32}}<ref name="Timeline: Early Chicago History">{{cite web |title=Timeline: Early Chicago History |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/chicago/timeline/index.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090325102159/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/chicago/timeline/index.html |work=Chicago: City of the Century |publisher=WGBH Educational Foundation And Window to the World Communications, Inc. |archive-date=March 25, 2009 |year=2003 |access-date=May 26, 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref> ===19th century=== {{multiple image | align = right | direction = vertical | image1 = Illinois-michigan-canal.png | width1 = 225 | caption1 = The location and course of the [[Illinois and Michigan Canal]] (completed 1848) | alt1 = | image2 = Corner Madison and State streets, Chicago -.webm | width2 = 225 | caption2 = [[State Street (Chicago)|State]] and [[Madison Street (Chicago)|Madison]] streets, once known as the busiest intersection in the world (1897) | alt2 = }} On August 12, 1833, the Town of Chicago was organized with a population of about 200.<ref name="Timeline: Early Chicago History" /> Within seven years it grew to more than 6,000 people. On June 15, 1835, the first public land sales began with [[Edmund Dick Taylor]] as Receiver of Public Monies. The City of Chicago was incorporated on Saturday, March 4, 1837,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/11480.html |title=Act of Incorporation for the City of Chicago, 1837 |publisher=State of Illinois |access-date=March 3, 2011 |archive-date=March 7, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110307032921/http://encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/11480.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and for several decades was the world's fastest-growing city.<ref>Walter Nugent. "[http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/962.html Demography] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221012204646/https://encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/962.html |date=October 12, 2022 }}" in ''Encyclopedia of Chicago''. Chicago Historical Society.</ref> As the site of the [[Chicago Portage]],{{sfnp|Keating|2005|p=27}} the city became an important transportation hub between the eastern and western United States. Chicago's first railway, [[Galena and Chicago Union Railroad]], and the [[Illinois and Michigan Canal]] opened in 1848. The canal allowed [[steamboat]]s and [[sailing ship]]s on the [[Great Lakes]] to connect to the Mississippi River.{{sfnp|Buisseret|1990|pp=86–98}}{{sfnp|Condit|1973|pp=30–31}}{{sfnp|Genzen|2007|pp=24–25}}{{sfnp|Keating|2005|pp=26–29, 35–39}} A flourishing economy brought residents from rural communities and [[Immigration to the United States|immigrants]] from abroad. Manufacturing and retail and finance sectors became dominant, influencing the [[American economy]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Conzen |first=Michael P. |chapter=Global Chicago |chapter-url=http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/300132.html |title=Encyclopedia of Chicago |publisher=Chicago Historical Society |access-date=December 6, 2015 |archive-date=November 12, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151112152124/http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/300132.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Chicago Board of Trade]] (established 1848) listed the first-ever standardized "exchange-traded" forward contracts, which were called [[futures contract]]s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cmegroup.com/company/history/timeline-of-achievements.html |title=Timeline-of-achievements |publisher=[[CME Group]] |access-date=January 20, 2013 |archive-date=January 7, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120107030442/http://www.cmegroup.com/company/history/timeline-of-achievements.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In the 1850s, Chicago gained national political prominence as the home of Senator [[Stephen Douglas]], the champion of the [[Kansas–Nebraska Act]] and the "popular sovereignty" approach to the issue of the spread of slavery.<ref>{{cite web |title=Stephen Douglas |url=https://www.lib.uchicago.edu/e/spcl/excat/douglas5.html |publisher=University of Chicago |access-date=May 29, 2011 |archive-date=June 9, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110609004224/http://www.lib.uchicago.edu/e/spcl/excat/douglas5.html |url-status=live }}</ref> These issues also helped propel another Illinoisan, [[Abraham Lincoln]], to the national stage. Lincoln was nominated in Chicago for U.S. president at the [[1860 Republican National Convention]], which was held in a purpose-built auditorium called the [[Wigwam (Chicago)|Wigwam]]. He defeated Douglas in the general election, and this set the stage for the [[American Civil War]]. To accommodate [[#Demographics|rapid population growth]] and demand for better sanitation, the city improved its infrastructure. In February 1856, Chicago's Common Council approved [[Ellis S. Chesbrough|Chesbrough]]'s plan to build the United States' first comprehensive sewerage system.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://users.ox.ac.uk/~sedm1912/chn.html#y1856_m02_d14 |title=Chicago Daily Tribune, Thursday Morning, February 14 |publisher=nike-of-samothrace.net |access-date=May 4, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140325060713/http://users.ox.ac.uk/~sedm1912/chn.html#y1856_m02_d14 |archive-date=March 25, 2014}}</ref> The project [[Raising of Chicago|raised much of central Chicago]] to a new grade with the use of [[jackscrews]] for raising buildings.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sites.austincc.edu/caddis/bull-moose-from-a-bully-pulpit |title=5 Bull Moose From a Bully Pulpit |publisher=Austin Community College |access-date=March 21, 2021 |author-first=Cameron |author-last=Addis |archive-date=February 27, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210227004439/http://sites.austincc.edu/caddis/bull-moose-from-a-bully-pulpit/ |url-status=live }}</ref> While elevating Chicago, and at first improving the city's health, the untreated sewage and industrial waste now flowed into the [[Chicago River]], and subsequently into [[Lake Michigan]], polluting the city's primary freshwater source. The city responded by tunneling {{convert|2|mi|km|spell=in}} out into Lake Michigan to newly built [[Water cribs in Chicago|water cribs]]. In 1900, the problem of sewage contamination was largely resolved when the city completed a major engineering feat. It reversed the flow of the Chicago River so that the water flowed away from Lake Michigan rather than into it. This project began with the construction and improvement of the Illinois and Michigan Canal, and was completed with the [[Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal]] that connects to the [[Illinois River]], which flows into the Mississippi River.{{sfnp|Condit|1973|pp=15–18, 243–245}}{{sfnp|Genzen|2007|pp=27–29, 38–43}}{{sfnp|Buisseret|1990|pp=154–155, 172–173, 204–205}} In 1871, the Great Chicago Fire destroyed an area about {{convert|4|mi|km}} long and {{convert|1|mi|km|adj=on}} wide, a large section of the city at the time.{{sfnp|Buisseret|1990|pp=148–149}}{{sfnp|Genzen|2007|pp=32–37}}{{sfnp|Lowe|2000|pp=87–97}} Much of the city, including railroads and [[Union Stock Yard|stockyards]], survived intact,{{sfnp|Lowe|2000|p=99}} and from the ruins of the previous wooden structures arose more modern constructions of steel and stone. These set a precedent for worldwide construction.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bruegmann |first=Robert |chapter=Built Environment of the Chicago Region |chapter-url=http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/181.html |title=Encyclopedia of Chicago |publisher=Chicago Historical Society |access-date=December 5, 2013 |author-link=Robert Bruegmann |year=2005 |archive-date=May 5, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505235245/http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/181.html |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfnp|Condit|1973|pp=9–11}} During its rebuilding period, Chicago constructed the world's [[Home Insurance Building|first skyscraper]] in 1885, using [[steel frame|steel-skeleton]] construction.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Allen |first=Frederick E. |date=February 2003 |title=Where They Went to See the Future |url=http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/2003/1/2003_1_68.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070220103637/http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/2003/1/2003_1_68.shtml |archive-date=February 20, 2007 |journal=[[American Heritage (magazine)|American Heritage]] |volume=54 |issue=1 |access-date=December 5, 2013}}</ref>{{sfnp|Lowe|2000|pp=121, 129}} The city grew significantly in size and population by incorporating many neighboring townships between 1851 and 1920, with the largest annexation happening in 1889, with five townships joining the city, including the [[Hyde Park Township, Cook County, Illinois|Hyde Park Township]], which now comprises most of the [[South Side of Chicago]] and the far southeast of Chicago, and the [[Jefferson Township, Cook County, Illinois|Jefferson Township]], which now makes up most of [[Northwest Side, Chicago|Chicago's Northwest Side]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/53.html |access-date=December 14, 2015 |year=2005 |encyclopedia=The Electronic Encyclopedia of Chicago |publisher=Chicago Historical Society |author=Cain, Louis P. |title=Annexations}}</ref> The desire to join the city was driven by municipal services that the city could provide its residents. Chicago's flourishing economy attracted huge numbers of new immigrants from Europe and migrants from the [[Eastern United States]]. Of the total population in 1900, more than 77% were either foreign-born or born in the United States of foreign parentage. [[Germans]], [[Irish people|Irish]], [[Polish people|Poles]], [[Swedes]], and [[Czechs]] made up nearly two-thirds of the foreign-born population (by 1900, whites were 98.1% of the city's population).<ref>{{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Chicago |volume= 6 | pages = 118–125; see page 124; first para |quote= Population.—Of the total population in 1900 not less than 34.6% were foreign-born; the number of persons either born abroad, or born in the United States of foreign parentage (i.e. father or both parents foreign), was 77.4% of the population, and in the total number of males of voting age the foreign-born predominated (53.4%). }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Race and Hispanic Origin for Selected Cities and Other Places: Earliest Census to 1990 |publisher=U.S. Census Bureau |url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0076/twps0076.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120812191959/http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0076/twps0076.html |archive-date=August 12, 2012}}</ref> [[Labor history of the United States|Labor conflicts]] followed the industrial boom and the rapid expansion of the labor pool, including the [[Haymarket affair]] on May 4, 1886, and in 1894 the [[Pullman Strike]]. Anarchist and socialist groups played prominent roles in creating very large and highly organized labor actions. Concern for social problems among Chicago's immigrant poor led [[Jane Addams]] and [[Ellen Gates Starr]] to found [[Hull House]] in 1889.<ref>{{cite book |chapter=Hull House Maps Its Neighborhood |chapter-url=http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/410008.html |title=Encyclopedia of Chicago |publisher=Chicago Historical Society |access-date=April 11, 2013 |archive-date=May 9, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130509185234/http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/410008.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Programs that were developed there became a model for the new field of [[social work]].<ref name="hullhouse">{{cite book |last=Johnson |first=Mary Ann |chapter=Hull House |chapter-url=http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/615.html |title=Encyclopedia of Chicago |publisher=Chicago Historical Society |access-date=April 12, 2013 |archive-date=March 28, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130328134724/http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/615.html |url-status=live }}</ref> During the 1870s and 1880s, Chicago attained national stature as the leader in the movement to improve public health. City laws and later, state laws that upgraded standards for the medical profession and fought urban epidemics of [[cholera]], [[smallpox]], and [[yellow fever]] were both passed and enforced. These laws became templates for public health reform in other cities and states.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Clinton |last=Sandvick |year=2009 |title=Enforcing Medical Licensing in Illinois: 1877–1890 |journal=Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine |volume=82 |issue=2 |pages=67–74 |pmid=19562006 |pmc=2701151}}</ref> The city established many large, well-landscaped [[Chicago Park District|municipal parks]], which also included public sanitation facilities. The chief advocate for improving public health in Chicago was [[John Henry Rauch|John H. Rauch, M.D.]] Rauch established a plan for Chicago's park system in 1866. He created [[Lincoln Park]] by closing a cemetery filled with shallow graves, and in 1867, in response to an outbreak of cholera he helped establish a new Chicago Board of Health. Ten years later, he became the secretary and then the president of the first Illinois State Board of Health, which carried out most of its activities in Chicago.<ref>{{cite journal |first=William K. |last=Beatty |year=1991 |title=John H. Rauch – Public Health, Parks and Politics |journal=Proceedings of the Institute of Medicine of Chicago |volume=44 |pages=97–118}}</ref> In the 1800s, Chicago became the nation's railroad hub, and by 1910 over 20 railroads operated passenger service out of six different downtown terminals.{{sfnp|Condit|1973|pp=43–49, 58, 318–319}}<ref>{{Holland-Classic|pages=66–91}}</ref> In 1883, Chicago's railway managers needed a general time convention, so they developed the standardized system of North American [[time zone]]s.<ref>{{cite book |author=United States. Office of the Commissioner of Railroads |title=Report to the Secretary of the Interior |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GmfNAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA19 |year=1883 |publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office |page=19 |access-date=July 8, 2020 |archive-date=July 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230709122354/https://books.google.com/books?id=GmfNAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA19 |url-status=live }}</ref> This system for telling time spread throughout the continent. In 1893, Chicago hosted the [[World's Columbian Exposition]] on former marshland at the present location of [[Jackson Park (Chicago)|Jackson Park]]. The Exposition drew 27.5 million visitors, and is considered the most influential [[world's fair]] in history.<ref>{{cite web |title=Chicago's Rich History |url=http://www.choosechicago.com/attendees/about_chicago/Pages/chicago_history.aspx |publisher=Chicago Convention and Tourism Bureau |access-date=June 10, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610015848/http://www.choosechicago.com/attendees/about_chicago/Pages/chicago_history.aspx |archive-date=June 10, 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref>{{sfnp|Lowe|2000|pp=148–154, 158–169}} The [[University of Chicago]], formerly at another location, moved to the same South Side location in 1892. The term "midway" for a fair or carnival referred originally to the [[Midway Plaisance]], a strip of park land that still runs through the University of Chicago campus and connects the [[Washington Park (Chicago park)|Washington]] and Jackson Parks.<ref>{{cite book |chapter=Exhibits on the Midway Plaisance, 1893 |chapter-url=http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/11421.html |title=Encyclopedia of Chicago |publisher=Chicago Historical Society |access-date=April 12, 2013 |archive-date=October 29, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121029013143/http://encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/11421.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Harper |first=Douglas |title=midway |url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/midway |work=Chicago Manual Style (CMS) |publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary |access-date=April 12, 2013 |archive-date=June 16, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130616220151/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/midway |url-status=live }}</ref> ===20th and 21st centuries=== ====1900 to 1939==== [[File:Chicago Photographed from Ray Knabenshue's Dirigible Air Ship.webm|thumb|upright=1|Aerial motion film photography of Chicago in 1914 as filmed by [[A. Roy Knabenshue]]]] During [[World War I]] and the 1920s there was a major expansion in industry. The availability of jobs attracted African Americans from the [[Southern United States]]. Between 1910 and 1930, the African American population of Chicago increased dramatically, from 44,103 to 233,903.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Martin |first=Elizabeth Anne |title=Detroit and the Great Migration, 1916–1929 |url=https://bentley.umich.edu/research/publications/migration/ch1.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080615144911/http://bentley.umich.edu/research/publications/migration/ch1.php |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 15, 2008 |journal=Bentley Historical Library Bulletin |publisher=University of Michigan |access-date=December 5, 2013 |volume=40 |year=1993}}</ref> This [[Great Migration (African American)|Great Migration]] had an immense cultural impact, called the [[Chicago Black Renaissance]], part of the [[New Negro Movement]], in art, literature, and music.<ref>{{cite book |author=Darlene Clark Hine |chapter-url=http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/240.html |chapter=Chicago Black Renaissance |publisher=Chicago Historical Society |title=Encyclopedia of Chicago |year=2005 |access-date=August 6, 2013 |archive-date=October 17, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221017083203/http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/240.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Continuing racial tensions and violence, such as the [[Chicago race riot of 1919]], also occurred.<ref>{{cite book |first=Steven |last=Essig |chapter-url=http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/1032.html |chapter=Race Riots |publisher=Chicago Historical Society |title=Encyclopedia of Chicago |year=2005 |access-date=August 6, 2013 |archive-date=June 23, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210623041337/http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/1032.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The ratification of the 18th amendment to the Constitution in 1919 made the production and sale (including exportation) of alcoholic beverages illegal in the United States. This ushered in the beginning of what is known as the gangster era, a time that roughly spans from 1919 until 1933 when [[Prohibition in the United States|Prohibition]] was repealed. The 1920s saw [[American gangsters during the 1920s|gangsters]], including [[Al Capone]], [[Dion O'Banion]], [[Bugs Moran]] and [[Tony Accardo]] battle law enforcement and each other on the streets of Chicago during the [[Prohibition in the United States|Prohibition era]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Gang (crime) – History |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/225308/gang |publisher=Britannica Online Encyclopedia |year=2009 |access-date=June 1, 2009 |archive-date=April 16, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090416115239/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/225308/gang |url-status=live }}</ref> Chicago was the location of the infamous [[St. Valentine's Day Massacre]] in 1929, when Al Capone sent men to gun down members of a rival gang, North Side, led by Bugs Moran.<ref>{{cite news |last=O'Brien |first=John |title=The St. Valentine's Day Massacre |url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/politics/chi-chicagodays-valentinesmassacre-story,0,1233196.story |access-date=April 12, 2013 |newspaper=Chicago Tribune |archive-date=May 10, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510021619/http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/politics/chi-chicagodays-valentinesmassacre-story,0,1233196.story |url-status=live }}</ref> [[File:Breaking the Landlords' Lease on Peace.jpg|thumb|Chicago tenants picket against rent increases (March 1920)]] From 1920 to 1921, the city was affected by a series of tenant [[rent strike]]s in it. Which lead to the formation of the Chicago Tenants Protective association, passage of the Kessenger tenant laws, and of a heat ordinance that legally required flats to be kept above 68 °F during winter months by landlords.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Robbins |first=Mark W. |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3998/mpub.9343785 |title=Middle Class Union: Organizing the 'Consuming Public' in Post-World War I America |date=2017 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-0-472-13033-7 |chapter=5. Rent War! Middle-Class Tenant Organizing |doi=10.3998/mpub.9343785 |jstor=10.3998/mpub.9343785 |access-date=April 4, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240404195206/https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3998/mpub.9343785 |archive-date=April 4, 2024 |url-status=bot: unknown}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=March 24, 1921 |title=U.S. Lists Rent War Flats; Tax Dodgers Hunted: Some Landlords Admit "Error" in Income |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/355006626/?terms=rent%20war&match=1 |access-date=2024-04-05 |website=wikipedialibrary.wmflabs.org |publisher=Chicago Daily Tribune |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=March 30, 1921 |title=Rent Hog Gets Wallop in Bills Passed in Senate: One Measure Gives Tenants 60 Days In Which to Vacate Property |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/767447025/?terms=rent%20hog&match=1 |access-date=2024-04-05 |website=wikipedialibrary.wmflabs.org |publisher=Belleville Daily Advocate |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=December 28, 1921 |title=Love Flees Cold Flats, Tenants' Leader Argues: Heated Charges Fly in Heat Ordinance Fight |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/354940800/?match=1&terms=heat%20ordinance |access-date=2024-04-11 |website=wikipedialibrary.wmflabs.org |publisher=Chicago Tribune |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=December 7, 1922 |title=Fine Landlord $25 In Test Case on New Heat Law |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/355236786/?match=1&terms=heat%20law |access-date=2024-04-11 |website=wikipedialibrary.wmflabs.org |publisher=Chicago Tribune |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-04-30 |title=Progress by Degrees: A History of the Chicago Heat Ordinance - The RentConfident Blog - RentConfident, Chicago IL |url=https://blog.rentconfident.com/2823/progress-by-degrees-a-history-of-the-chicago-heat-ordinance/ |access-date=2024-04-11 |website=web.archive.org |archive-date=April 30, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430034732/https://blog.rentconfident.com/2823/progress-by-degrees-a-history-of-the-chicago-heat-ordinance/ |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref> Chicago was the first American city to have a homosexual-rights organization. The organization, formed in 1924, was called the [[Society for Human Rights]]. It produced the first American publication for homosexuals, ''[[Friendship and Freedom]]''. Police and political pressure caused the organization to disband.<ref>{{cite web |title=Timeline: Milestones in the American Gay Rights Movement |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/timeline/stonewall/ |work=PBS |publisher=WGBH Educational Foundation |access-date=April 12, 2013 |archive-date=May 22, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130522061316/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/timeline/stonewall/ |url-status=live }}</ref>[[File:Unemployed men queued outside a depression soup kitchen opened in Chicago by Al Capone, 02-1931 - NARA - 541927.jpg|thumb|upright=1|Men outside a soup kitchen during the [[Great Depression]] (1931)]] The Great Depression brought unprecedented suffering to Chicago, in no small part due to the city's heavy reliance on heavy industry. Notably, industrial areas on the south side and neighborhoods lining both branches of the Chicago River were devastated; by 1933 over 50% of industrial jobs in the city had been lost, and unemployment rates amongst blacks and Mexicans in the city were over 40%. The Republican political machine in Chicago was utterly destroyed by the economic crisis, and every mayor since 1931 has been a [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]].<ref name="Great Depression"/> From 1928 to 1933, the city witnessed a tax revolt, and the city was unable to meet payroll or provide relief efforts. The fiscal crisis was resolved by 1933, and at the same time, federal relief funding began to flow into Chicago.<ref name="Great Depression">{{cite web |title=Great Depression |url=http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/542.html |website=Encyclopedia of Chicago |publisher=Chicago History Museum |access-date=April 27, 2018 |archive-date=April 11, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180411165807/http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/542.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Chicago was also a hotbed of labor activism, with [[Unemployed Councils]] contributing heavily in the early depression to create solidarity for the poor and demand relief; these organizations were created by socialist and communist groups. By 1935 the [[Workers Alliance of America]] begun organizing the poor, workers, the unemployed. In the spring of 1937 Republic Steel Works witnessed the [[Memorial Day massacre of 1937]] in the neighborhood of East Side. In 1933, Chicago Mayor [[Anton Cermak]] was fatally wounded in [[Miami, Florida]], during a [[List of United States presidential assassination attempts and plots#Franklin D. Roosevelt|failed assassination]] attempt on President-elect [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]. In 1933 and 1934, the city celebrated its centennial by hosting the [[Century of Progress]] International Exposition [[World's Fair]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://collections.carli.illinois.edu/cdm4/index_uic_cop.php?CISOROOT=/uic_cop |title=Century of Progress World's Fair, 1933–1934 (University of Illinois at Chicago) : Home |publisher=Collections.carli.illinois.edu |access-date=July 3, 2011 |archive-date=July 18, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718172313/http://collections.carli.illinois.edu/cdm4/index_uic_cop.php?CISOROOT=/uic_cop |url-status=live }}</ref> The theme of the fair was technological innovation over the century since Chicago's founding.<ref>{{cite book |author=Robert W. Rydell |chapter-url=http://encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/225.html |chapter=Century of Progress Exposition |title=Encyclopedia of Chicago |publisher=Chicago Historical Society |access-date=July 3, 2011 |archive-date=May 14, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514034330/http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/225.html |url-status=live }}</ref> ====1940 to 1979==== [[File:Chicago Blackhawks - Chicago Picaso (4838269639).jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Chicago Picasso]] (1967) inspired a new era in urban public art.]] During [[World War II]], the city of Chicago alone produced more steel than the United Kingdom every year from 1939 – 1945, and more than [[Nazi Germany]] from 1943 – 1945.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Chicago's Long and Extraordinary Labor History |url=https://ibew.org/ibew40thconvention/DailyArticles/2205/220427_Labor-History |access-date=2023-10-24 |website=ibew.org}}</ref> [[File:1968 Democratic National Convention, Chicago. Sept 68 C15 8 1313, Photo by Bea A Corson, Chicago. Purchased at estate sale in 2011 by Victor Grigas Released Public Domain.tiff|thumb|upright=1|Protesters in [[Grant Park (Chicago)|Grant Park]] outside the [[1968 Democratic National Convention]]]] The Great Migration, which had been on pause due to the Depression, resumed at an even faster pace in the [[Second Great Migration (African American)|second wave]], as hundreds of thousands of blacks from the South arrived in the city to work in the steel mills, railroads, and shipping yards.<ref>{{cite web |title=World War II |url=http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/1384.html |website=Encyclopedia of Chicago |publisher=Chicago History Museum |access-date=April 27, 2018 |archive-date=March 28, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180328181817/http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/1384.html |url-status=live }}</ref> On December 2, 1942, physicist [[Enrico Fermi]] conducted the world's first controlled [[Chicago Pile-1|nuclear reaction]] at the University of Chicago as part of the top-secret [[Manhattan Project]]. This led to the creation of the atomic bomb by the United States, which it used in [[World War II]] in 1945.<ref>{{cite web |title=CP-1 (Chicago Pile 1 Reactor) |url=http://www.ne.anl.gov/About/reactors/early-reactors.shtml |work=Argonne National Laboratory |publisher=U.S. Department of Energy |access-date=April 12, 2013 |archive-date=May 8, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190508171228/https://www.ne.anl.gov/About/reactors/early-reactors.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> Mayor [[Richard J. Daley]], a Democrat, was elected in 1955, in the era of [[political machine|machine politics]]. In 1956, the city conducted its last major expansion when it annexed the land under O'Hare airport, including a small portion of DuPage County.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Szymczak |first=Patricia |date=June 18, 1989 |title=O'Hare suburbs under fire |work=[[Chicago Tribune]] |url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1989-06-18-8902100436-story.html |access-date=July 20, 2022 |archive-date=July 20, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220720015834/https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1989-06-18-8902100436-story.html |url-status=live }}</ref> By the 1960s, white residents in several neighborhoods left the city for the suburban areas – in many American cities, a process known as [[white flight]] – as Blacks continued to move beyond the [[Black Belt (region of Chicago)|Black Belt]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Steffes |first=Tracey L |date=2015 |title=Managing School Integration and White Flight: The Debate over Chicago's Future in the 1960's |url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0096144214566970 |journal=Journal of Urban History |volume=42 |issue=4 |doi=10.1177/0096144214566970 |s2cid=147531740 |access-date=June 24, 2022 |archive-date=July 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230709112327/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0096144214566970 |url-status=live }}</ref> While home loan discriminatory [[redlining]] against blacks continued, the real estate industry practiced what became known as [[blockbusting]], completely changing the racial composition of whole neighborhoods.<ref name="Mehlhorn">{{cite journal |last=Mehlhorn |first=Dmitri |title=A Requiem for Blockbusting: Law, Economics, and Race-Based Real Estate Speculation |journal=Fordham Law Review |volume=67 |pages=1145–1161 |date=December 1998}}</ref> Structural changes in industry, such as globalization and job outsourcing, caused heavy job losses for lower-skilled workers. At its peak during the 1960s, some 250,000 workers were employed in the steel industry in Chicago, but the steel crisis of the 1970s and 1980s reduced this number to just 28,000 in 2015. In 1966, [[Martin Luther King Jr.]] and [[Albert Raby]] led the [[Chicago Freedom Movement]], which culminated in agreements between Mayor Richard J. Daley and the movement leaders.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lentz |first=Richard |title=Symbols, the News Magazines, and Martin Luther King |year=1990 |publisher=LSU Press |isbn=0-8071-2524-5 |page=230}} </ref> Two years later, the city hosted the tumultuous [[1968 Democratic National Convention]], which featured physical confrontations both inside and outside the convention hall, with anti-war protesters, journalists and bystanders being beaten by police.<ref>{{cite news |last=Mailer |first=Norman |title=Brief History Of Chicago's 1968 Democratic Convention |url=http://www.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/1996/conventions/chicago/facts/chicago68/index.shtml |work=Facts on File, CQ's Guide to U.S. Elections |publisher=CNN |access-date=May 5, 2013 |archive-date=March 18, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220318074348/http://www.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/1996/conventions/chicago/facts/chicago68/index.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> Major construction projects, including the Sears Tower (now known as the [[Willis Tower]], which in 1974 became the [[List of tallest buildings and structures in the world|world's tallest building]]), [[University of Illinois at Chicago]], [[McCormick Place]], and [[O'Hare International Airport]], were undertaken during Richard J. Daley's tenure.<ref>{{cite news |last=Cillizza |first=Chris |title=The Fix – Hall of Fame – The Case for Richard J. Daley |url=http://voices.washingtonpost.com/thefix/hall-of-fame/hall-of-fame-the-case-for-rich.html |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=September 23, 2009 |access-date=April 22, 2013 |archive-date=February 1, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130201063930/http://voices.washingtonpost.com/thefix/hall-of-fame/hall-of-fame-the-case-for-rich.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1979, [[Jane Byrne]], the city's first female mayor, was elected. She was notable for temporarily moving into the crime-ridden [[Cabrini-Green]] housing project and for leading Chicago's school system out of a financial crisis.<ref>{{cite news |last=Dold |first=R. Bruce |title=Jane Byrne elected mayor of Chicago |url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/politics/chi-chicagodays-byrne-story,0,7583194.story |newspaper=[[Chicago Tribune]] |date=February 27, 1979 |access-date=April 17, 2020 |archive-date=July 15, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140715034553/http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/politics/chi-chicagodays-byrne-story,0,7583194.story |url-status=live }}</ref> ====1980 to present==== In 1983, [[Harold Washington]] became the first black mayor of Chicago. Washington's first term in office directed attention to poor and previously neglected minority neighborhoods. He was re‑elected in 1987 but died of a heart attack soon after.<ref>{{cite news |last=Rivlin |first=Gary |title=The legend of Harold Washington |url=http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2012-11-25/news/ct-oped-1125-washington-20121125_1_harold-washington-first-african-american-mayor-economic-development |access-date=April 12, 2013 |newspaper=Chicago Tribune |date=November 25, 2012 |author2=Larry Bennett |archive-date=May 10, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510035458/http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2012-11-25/news/ct-oped-1125-washington-20121125_1_harold-washington-first-african-american-mayor-economic-development |url-status=live }}</ref> Washington was succeeded by 6th ward alderperson [[Eugene Sawyer]], who was elected by the Chicago City Council and served until a special election. [[Richard M. Daley]], son of Richard J. Daley, was elected in 1989. His accomplishments included improvements to parks and creating incentives for [[sustainable development]], as well as closing [[Meigs Field]] in the middle of the night and destroying the runways. After successfully running for re-election five times, and becoming Chicago's longest-serving mayor, Richard M. Daley declined to run for a seventh term.<ref>{{cite news |title=Chicago and the Legacy of the Daley Dynasty |url=http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,2016992,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100911050717/http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,2016992,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=September 11, 2010 |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |access-date=April 12, 2013 |date=September 9, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=National Building Museum to honor Daley for greening of Chicago |url=http://featuresblogs.chicagotribune.com/theskyline/2009/04/national-building-museum-to-honor-daley-and-chicago-for-the-greening-of-chicago-.html |work=Chicago Tribune |access-date=April 12, 2013 |date=April 8, 2009 |archive-date=May 10, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510023109/http://featuresblogs.chicagotribune.com/theskyline/2009/04/national-building-museum-to-honor-daley-and-chicago-for-the-greening-of-chicago-.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 1992, a construction accident near the [[Kinzie Street Bridge]] produced a breach connecting the Chicago River to a tunnel below, which was part of an [[Chicago Tunnel Company|abandoned freight tunnel system]] extending throughout the downtown [[Chicago Loop|Loop]] district. The [[Chicago flood|tunnels filled]] with {{convert|250|e6USgal|m3|-6}} of water, affecting buildings throughout the district and forcing a shutdown of electrical power.<ref name="CBS2">{{cite news |title=1992 Loop Flood Brings Chaos, Billions In Losses |publisher=CBS2 Chicago |url=http://cbs2chicago.com/vault/local_story_104140940.html |date=April 14, 2007 | access-date = January 11, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927231222/http://cbs2chicago.com/vault/local_story_104140940.html |archive-date=September 27, 2007}}</ref> The area was shut down for three days and some buildings did not reopen for weeks; losses were estimated at $1.95 billion.<ref name="CBS2"/> On February 23, 2011, [[Rahm Emanuel]], a former [[White House Chief of Staff]] and member of the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]], won the mayoral election.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/41715205 |title=News: Rahm Emanuel wins Chicago mayoral race |work=NBC News |date=February 23, 2011 |access-date=July 3, 2011 |archive-date=June 1, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200601010954/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/41715205 |url-status=live }}</ref> Emanuel was sworn in as mayor on May 16, 2011, and won re-election in 2015.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Tareen |first1=Sophia |last2=Burnett |first2=Sarah |title=Chicago Mayor Rahm Emanuel wins 2nd term in runoff victory |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/chicago-mayor-rahm-emanuel-wins-2nd-term-in-runoff-victory-2015-4 |website=Business Insider |access-date=April 3, 2019 |date=April 7, 2015 |archive-date=April 3, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403015441/https://www.businessinsider.com/chicago-mayor-rahm-emanuel-wins-2nd-term-in-runoff-victory-2015-4 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Lori Lightfoot]], the city's first African American woman mayor and its first openly LGBTQ mayor, was elected to succeed Emanuel as mayor in 2019.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Bosman |first1=Julie |last2=Smith |first2=Mitch |last3=Davey |first3=Monica |title=Lori Lightfoot Is Elected Chicago Mayor, Becoming First Black Woman to Lead City |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/02/us/chicago-election-results.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/02/us/chicago-election-results.html |archive-date=January 1, 2022 |url-access=limited |website=The New York Times |access-date=April 3, 2019 |date=April 2, 2019}}{{cbignore}}</ref> All three city-wide elective offices were held by women (and women of color) for the first time in Chicago history: in addition to Lightfoot, the city clerk was [[Anna M. Valencia|Anna Valencia]] and the city treasurer was [[Melissa Conyears|Melissa Conyears-Ervin]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/politics/with-mayor-lori-lightfoots-inauguration-3-women-of-color-now-hold-top-citywide-offices-chicago-was-ready-for-this/ar-AABDWHV |title=With Mayor Lori Lightfoot's inauguration, 3 women of color now hold top citywide offices: 'Chicago was ready for this' | last=Perez | first=Juan Jr. |work=Chicago Tribune |access-date=May 21, 2019 |via=MSN |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190713152154/https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/politics/with-mayor-lori-lightfoots-inauguration-3-women-of-color-now-hold-top-citywide-offices-chicago-was-ready-for-this/ar-AABDWHV |archive-date=July 13, 2019 |url-status=dead}}</ref> On May 15, 2023, [[Brandon Johnson]] assumed office as the 57th mayor of Chicago. Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. 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