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Do not fill this in! ==History== {{Main|History of the Catholic Church}} {{For timeline}} {{Further|Historiography of early Christianity}} ===Apostolic era and papacy=== {{Main|Apostolic Age}} [[File:Perugino - Entrega de las llaves a San Pedro (Capilla Sixtina, 1481-82).jpg|thumb|alt=Painting a haloed Jesus Christ passing keys to a kneeling man.|A {{Circa|1481-1482}} [[fresco]] by [[Pietro Perugino]] in the [[Sistine Chapel]] showing [[Jesus]] giving the [[Keys of Heaven|keys of heaven]] to [[Saint Peter]]]] [[File:Última Cena - Da Vinci 5.jpg|thumb|[[The Last Supper (Leonardo)|''The Last Supper'']], a late 1490s mural painting by [[Leonardo da Vinci]], depicting the [[last supper]] of Jesus and his [[Apostles in the New Testament|twelve apostles]] on the eve of his [[Crucifixion of Jesus|crucifixion]]. Most of Jesus' apostles are buried in [[Rome]], including Saint Peter.]] The [[New Testament]], in particular the [[Gospels]], records Jesus' activities and teaching, his appointment of the Twelve Apostles and his [[Great Commission]] of the apostles, instructing them to continue his work.{{sfn|Bokenkotter|2004|p=30}}<ref name="Kreeft98O">Kreeft, p. 980.</ref> The book [[Acts of Apostles]], tells of the founding of the Christian church and the spread of its message to the Roman empire.<ref>Burkett, p. 263</ref> <!--from Acts of the Apostles--> The Catholic Church teaches that its public ministry began on [[Pentecost]], occurring fifty days following the date Christ is believed to have [[Resurrection of Christ|resurrected]].<ref name="Barry48"/> At Pentecost, the apostles are believed to have received the Holy Spirit, preparing them for their mission in leading the church.<ref>{{Cite CCC|2.1|1076|quote=The Church was made manifest to the world on the day of Pentecost by the outpouring of the Holy Spirit...}}</ref><ref>{{cite Catholic Encyclopedia|wstitle=Holy Ghost}}<br />"He [the Holy Spirit] is essentially the Spirit of truth (John 14:16–17; 15:26), Whose office it is to ... to teach the Apostles the full meaning of it [of the truth] (John 14:26; 16:13). With these Apostles, He will abide forever (John 14:16). Having descended on them at Pentecost, He will guide them in their work (Acts 8:29)...</ref> The Catholic Church teaches that the [[college of bishops]], led by the [[bishop of Rome]] are the [[apostolic succession|successors]] to the Apostles.<ref>{{Cite CCC|2.1|880,883}}</ref> In the account of the [[Confession of Peter]] found in the [[Gospel of Matthew]], Christ designates Peter as the "rock" upon which Christ's church will be built.<ref>Christian Bible, {{Bibleverse|Matthew|16:13–20}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/453832/Saint-Peter-the-Apostle/5630/Incidents-important-in-interpretations-of-Peter|title=Saint Peter the Apostle: Incidents important in interpretations of Peter|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=8 November 2014|archive-date=10 November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141110070846/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/453832/Saint-Peter-the-Apostle/5630/Incidents-important-in-interpretations-of-Peter|url-status=live}}</ref> The Catholic Church considers the bishop of Rome, the pope, to be the successor to [[Saint Peter]].<ref>{{Cite CCC|2.1|880–881}}</ref> Some scholars state Peter was the first bishop of Rome.<ref name="JoyceCE1913">{{cite Catholic Encyclopedia|wstitle=The Pope|first=George|last=Joyce}}</ref> Others say that the institution of the papacy is not dependent on the idea that Peter was bishop of Rome or even on his ever having been in Rome.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.catholic.com/tracts/was-peter-in-rome|title=Was Peter in Rome?|publisher=Catholic Answers|date=10 August 2004|quote=if Peter never made it to the capital, he still could have been the first pope, since one of his successors could have been the first holder of that office to settle in Rome. After all, if the papacy exists, it was established by Christ during his lifetime, long before Peter is said to have reached Rome. There must have been a period of some years in which the papacy did not yet have its connection to Rome.|access-date=9 November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161212105950/http://www.catholic.com/tracts/was-peter-in-rome|archive-date=12 December 2016}}</ref> Many scholars hold that a church structure of plural presbyters/bishops persisted in Rome until the mid-2nd century, when the structure of a single bishop and plural presbyters was adopted,<ref name=REB/> and that later writers retrospectively applied the term "bishop of Rome" to the most prominent members of the clergy in the earlier period and also to Peter himself.<ref name=REB/> On this basis, [[Oscar Cullmann]],<ref>Oscar Cullmann (1962), Peter: Disciple, Apostle, Martyr (2 ed.), Westminster Press p. 234</ref> [[Henry Chadwick (theologian)|Henry Chadwick]],<ref>Henry Chadwick (1993), The Early Church, Penguin Books p. 18</ref> and [[Bart D. Ehrman]]{{refn|name=ehrman|{{cite book|url=https://global.oup.com/academic/product/peter-paul-and-mary-magdalene-9780195343502|last=Ehrman|first=Bart D|title=Peter, Paul, and Mary Magdalene: The Followers of Jesus in History and Legend|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=US|date=2006|isbn=978-0-19-530013-0|page=84|quote=Peter, in short, could not have been the first bishop of Rome, because the Roman church did not have ''anyone'' as its bishop until about a hundred years after Peter's death.}}|}} question whether there was a formal link between Peter and the modern papacy. [[Raymond E. Brown]] also says that it is anachronistic to speak of Peter in terms of local bishop of Rome, but that Christians of that period would have looked on Peter as having "roles that would contribute in an essential way to the development of the role of the papacy in the subsequent church". These roles, Brown says, "contributed enormously to seeing the bishop of Rome, the bishop of the city where Peter died and where Paul witnessed the truth of Christ, as the successor of Peter in care for the church universal".<ref name="REB">{{cite book|last=Brown|first=Raymond E.|year=2003|title=101 Questions and Answers on the Bible|url={{googlebooks|b8ubeFP6JUYC|page=132|plainurl=y}}|publisher=Paulist Press|isbn=978-0-8091-4251-4|pages=132–134}}</ref> ===Antiquity and Roman Empire=== {{Main|Early centers of Christianity|Pentarchy|List of heresies in the Catholic Church}} [[File:Basilica di San Pietro 1450.jpg|thumb|A 19th-century drawing by [[Henry William Brewer]] of [[Old St. Peter's Basilica]], built in 318 by [[Constantine the Great]]]] Conditions in the [[Roman Empire]] facilitated the spread of new ideas. The empire's network of roads and waterways facilitated travel, and the ''[[Pax Romana]]'' made travelling safe. The empire encouraged the spread of a common culture with Greek roots, which allowed ideas to be more easily expressed and understood.{{sfn|Bokenkotter|2004|p=24}} Unlike most religions in the Roman Empire, however, Christianity required its adherents to renounce all other gods, a practice adopted from Judaism (see [[Idolatry]]). The Christians' refusal to join [[Paganism|pagan]] celebrations meant they were unable to participate in much of public life, which caused non-Christians—including government authorities—to fear that the Christians were angering the gods and thereby threatening the peace and prosperity of the Empire. The [[Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire|resulting persecutions]] were a defining feature of Christian self-understanding until Christianity was legalized in the 4th century.<ref name="macculloch155and164">MacCulloch, ''Christianity'', pp. 155–159, 164.</ref> In 313, [[Constantine I and Christianity|Emperor Constantine I]]'s [[Edict of Milan]] legalized Christianity, and in 330 Constantine moved the imperial capital to [[Constantinople]], modern [[Istanbul, Turkey]]. In 380 the [[Edict of Thessalonica]] made [[Nicene Christianity]] the [[state church of the Roman Empire]], a position that within the diminishing territory of the [[Byzantine Empire]] would persist until the empire itself ended in the [[fall of Constantinople]] in 1453, while elsewhere the church was independent of the empire, as became particularly clear with the [[East–West Schism]]. During the period of the [[Seven Ecumenical Councils]], five primary sees emerged, an arrangement formalized in the mid-6th century by Emperor [[Justinian I]] as the [[pentarchy]] of Rome, [[Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople|Constantinople]], [[Patriarch of Antioch|Antioch]], [[Jerusalem in Christianity|Jerusalem]] and [[Patriarch of Alexandria|Alexandria]].<ref name="Valliere2012">{{cite book|last=Valliere|first=Paul|year= 2012|title=Conciliarism|url={{googlebooks|Qrt3Z7fyzlUC|page=92|plainurl=y}}|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-01574-6|page=92}}</ref><ref name="Bartholomew2008">{{cite book|last=Patriarch|first=Bartholomew|year=2008|title=Encountering the Mystery|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4_UB3_UpIcQC&pg=PA3|publisher=Random House|isbn=978-0-385-52561-9|page=3|access-date=31 March 2021|archive-date=10 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240310112403/https://books.google.com/books?id=4_UB3_UpIcQC&pg=PA3#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> In 451 the [[Council of Chalcedon]], in a canon of disputed validity,<ref name="Michalopulos">{{cite web|last=Michalopulos|first=George C.|url=http://www.aoiusa.org/canon-28-and-eastern-papalism-cause-or-effect|title=Canon 28 and Eastern Papalism: Cause or Effect?|date=11 September 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130110112941/http://www.aoiusa.org/canon-28-and-eastern-papalism-cause-or-effect|archive-date=10 January 2013}}</ref> elevated the [[see of Constantinople]] to a position "second in eminence and power to the bishop of Rome".<ref name="Noble214">Noble, p. 214.</ref> From {{Circa|350|500}}, the bishops, or popes, of Rome, steadily increased in authority through their consistent intervening in support of [[Episcopal see#Catholic Church|orthodox leaders]] in theological disputes, which encouraged appeals to them.<ref name="ReferenceA">"Rome (early Christian)". Cross, F. L., ed., ''The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church''. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref> Emperor [[Justinian]], who in the areas under his control definitively established a form of [[caesaropapism]],<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/asourcebookforan24979gut|title=A Source Book for Ancient Church History: From the Apostolic Age to the Close of the Conciliar Period| first=Joseph Cullen Jr. |last=Ayer|location=New York|publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons|year=1913|page=[https://archive.org/details/asourcebookforan24979gut/page/n543/mode/2up 538]}}</ref> in which "he had the right and duty of regulating by his laws the minutest details of worship and discipline, and also of dictating the theological opinions to be held in the Church",<ref>Ayer, p. 553</ref> re-established imperial power over Rome and other parts of the West, initiating the period termed the [[Byzantine Papacy]] (537–752), during which the bishops of Rome, or popes, required approval from the emperor in Constantinople or from his representative in Ravenna for consecration, and most were selected by the emperor from his Greek-speaking subjects,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/behindl_bau_2003_00_6167|url-access=registration|title=Behind Locked Doors: A History of the Papal Elections|first=Frederic J.|last=Baumgartner|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2003|isbn=978-0-312-29463-2|pages=[https://archive.org/details/behindl_bau_2003_00_6167/page/n29 10]–12}}</ref> resulting in a "melting pot" of Western and Eastern Christian traditions in art as well as liturgy.<ref>[[Eamon Duffy|Duffy, Eamon]]. 1997. ''Saints & Sinners: A History of the Popes''. Yale University Press. pp. 66–67</ref> Most of the Germanic tribes who in the following centuries invaded the Roman Empire had adopted Christianity in its [[Arianism|Arian]] form, which the [[First Council of Nicaea|Council of Nicea]] declared [[Christian heresy|heretical]].<ref>Le Goff, p. 14: "The face of the barbarian invaders had been transformed by another crucial fact. Although some of them had remained pagan, another part of them, not the least, had become Christian. But, by a curious chance, which was to leave serious consequences, these converted barbarians—the Ostrogoths, Visigoths, Burgundians, Vandals, and later the Lombards—had been converted to Arianism, which had become a heresy after the council of Nicaea. They had in fact been converted by followers of the 'apostle of the Goths', Wulfilas."</ref> The resulting religious discord between Germanic rulers and Catholic subjects<ref>Le Goff, p. 14: "Thus what should have been a religious bond was, on the contrary, a subject of discord and sparked off bitter conflicts between Arian barbarians and Catholic Romans."</ref> was avoided when, in 497, [[Clovis I]], the [[Franks|Frankish]] ruler, converted to orthodox Catholicism, allying himself with the papacy and the monasteries.<ref>Le Goff, p. 21: "Clovis' master-stroke was to convert himself and his people not to Arianism, like the other barbarian kings, but to Catholicism."</ref> The Visigoths in Spain followed his lead in 589,<ref>Le Goff, p. 21</ref> and the Lombards in Italy in the course of the 7th century.<ref>{{cite book|last=Drew|first=Katherine Fischer|year=2014|title=The Lombard Laws|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|url={{googlebooks|7ItMSn421GAC|pg=PR18|plainurl=y}}|isbn=978-0-8122-1055-2|page=xviii}}</ref> [[Western Christianity]], particularly through its [[Western monasticism|monasteries]], was a major factor in preserving [[Classical antiquity|classical civilization]], with its art (see [[Illuminated manuscript]]) and literacy.<ref name=Cahill_Thomas>{{cite book|title=[[How the Irish Saved Civilization|How The Irish Saved Civilization: The Untold Story of Ireland's Heroic Role from the Fall of Rome to the Rise of Medieval Europe]] |first=Thomas |last=Cahill |date=1995 |publisher=[[Penguin Random House]] |location=New York City}}</ref> Through his [[Rule of Saint Benedict|Rule]], [[Benedict of Nursia]] ({{circa|480|lk=no}}–543), one of the founders of [[Western monasticism]], exerted an enormous influence on European culture through the appropriation of the monastic spiritual heritage of the early Catholic Church and, with the spread of the Benedictine tradition, through the preservation and transmission of ancient culture. During this period, monastic Ireland became a centre of learning and early Irish missionaries such as [[Columbanus]] and [[Columba]] spread Christianity and established monasteries across continental Europe.<ref name=Cahill_Thomas/> ===Middle Ages and Renaissance=== {{Further|History of Christianity during the Middle Ages|Christianity in the 16th century#Renaissance Church}} [[File:Chartres Cath+Gare.JPG|thumb|[[Chartres Cathedral]] in [[Chartres]], France, completed in 1220]] [[File:Lightmatter Sistine Chapel ceiling.jpg|thumb|The [[Sistine Chapel ceiling]], painted by [[Michelangelo]]; the [[Renaissance]] period of the 15th and 16th centuries was a golden age for [[Catholic art]].]] The Catholic Church was the dominant influence on Western civilization from [[Late Antiquity]] to the dawn of the modern age.<ref name="O'CollinsPref"/> It was the primary sponsor of Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance, Mannerist and Baroque styles in art, architecture and music.<ref>Woods, pp. 115–27</ref> Renaissance figures such as [[Raphael]], [[Michelangelo]], [[Leonardo da Vinci]], [[Botticelli]], [[Fra Angelico]], [[Tintoretto]], [[Titian]], [[Bernini]] and [[Caravaggio]] are examples of the numerous visual artists sponsored by the church.<ref>Duffy, p. 133.</ref> Historian Paul Legutko of [[Stanford University]] said the Catholic Church is "at the center of the development of the values, ideas, science, laws, and institutions which constitute what we call [[Western civilization]]".<ref>{{cite web|title=Review of ''How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilisation''|first=Thomas Jr.|last=Woods|url=http://www.nrbookservice.com/products/bookpage.asp?prod_cd=c6664|work=National Review Book Service|access-date=16 September 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060822150152/http://www.nrbookservice.com/products/BookPage.asp?prod_cd=c6664|archive-date=22 August 2006}}</ref> In Western [[Christendom]], the [[Medieval university|first universities in Europe]] were established by monks.<ref>{{cite book|title=Managing the University Campus: Information to Support Real Estate Decisions|first=Alexandra |last= Den Heijer| isbn=9789059724877| year =2011|publisher=Academische Uitgeverij Eburon| quote= Many of the medieval universities in Western Europe were born under the aegis of the Catholic Church, usually as cathedral schools or by papal bull as Studia Generali.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Christian Education|first=Mark|last= A. Lamport |year= 2015| page =484|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield| isbn=9780810884939|quote= All the great European universities-Oxford, to Paris, to Cologne, to Prague, to Bologna—were established with close ties to the Church.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of the Developing World|first=Thomas |last=B M. Leonard|year= 2013| isbn=9781135205157| page = 1369|publisher=Routledge|quote= Europe established schools in association with their cathedrals to educate priests, and from these emerged eventually the first universities of Europe, which began forming in the eleventh and twelfth centuries.}}</ref> Beginning in the 11th century, several older cathedral schools [[Medieval university|became universities]], such as the [[University of Oxford]], [[University of Paris]], and [[University of Bologna]]. Higher education before then had been the domain of Christian cathedral schools or monastic schools, led by [[monk]]s and [[nun]]s. Evidence of such schools dates back to the 6th century CE.<ref name="auto">Riché, Pierre (1978): "Education and Culture in the Barbarian West: From the Sixth through the Eighth Century", Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, {{ISBN|0-87249-376-8}}, pp. 126–127, 282–298</ref> These new universities expanded the curriculum to include academic programs for clerics, lawyers, civil servants, and physicians.<ref>Rudy, ''The Universities of Europe, 1100–1914'', p. 40</ref> The university is generally regarded as an institution that has its origin in the [[History of Christianity|Medieval Christian]] setting.<ref name=verger1999>{{cite book |last=Verger |first=Jacques |date=1999 |author-link=:fr:Jacques Verger |title=Culture, enseignement et société en Occident aux XIIe et XIIIe siècles |edition=1st |language=fr |publisher=Presses universitaires de Rennes in Rennes |isbn=978-2-86847-344-8 |url=https://openlibrary.org/works/OL822497W |access-date=17 June 2014 |archive-date=13 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200313042832/https://openlibrary.org/works/OL822497W/Culture_enseignement_et_soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_en_Occident_aux_XIIe_et_XIIIe_si%C3%A8cles |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>Verger, Jacques. "The Universities and Scholasticism", in The New Cambridge Medieval History: Volume V c. 1198–c. 1300. Cambridge University Press, 2007, 257.</ref><ref name="Rüegg, Walter 1992, pp. XIX">Rüegg, Walter: "Foreword. The University as a European Institution", in: ''A History of the University in Europe. Vol. 1: Universities in the Middle Ages'', Cambridge University Press, 1992, {{ISBN|0-521-36105-2}}, pp. XIX–XX</ref> The massive Islamic invasions of the [[Christianity in the 7th century|mid-7th century]] began a long struggle between [[Christianity and Islam]] throughout the Mediterranean Basin. The [[Byzantine Empire]] soon lost the lands of the eastern [[patriarchate]]s of [[Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem|Jerusalem]], [[Patriarch of Alexandria|Alexandria]] and [[Patriarch of Antioch|Antioch]] and was reduced to that of [[Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople|Constantinople]], the empire's capital. As a result of [[Early Muslim conquests|Islamic domination of the Mediterranean]], the Frankish state, centred away from that sea, was able to evolve as the dominant power that shaped the Western Europe of the Middle Ages.<ref>{{cite book|last=Pirenne|first=Henri|year=1980|title=Medieval Cities: Their Origins and the Revival of Trade|others=Frank D. Halsey (trans.)|location=Princeton, NJ|publisher=Princeton University Press|orig-date=1925|url={{googlebooks|TKUN4UdfVaQC|page=27|plainurl=y}}|isbn=978-0-691-00760-1|pages=27–32}}</ref> The battles of [[Battle of Toulouse (721)|Toulouse]] and [[Battle of Poitiers (732)|Poitiers]] halted the Islamic advance in the West and the failed [[Siege of Constantinople (717–718)|siege of Constantinople]] halted it in the East. Two or three decades later, in 751, the Byzantine Empire lost to the Lombards the city of Ravenna from which it [[Exarchate of Ravenna|governed]] the small fragments of Italy, including Rome, that acknowledged its sovereignty. The fall of Ravenna meant that confirmation by a no longer existent exarch was not asked for during the election in 752 of [[Pope Stephen II]] and that the papacy was forced to look elsewhere for a civil power to protect it.<ref>{{cite book|last=Richards|first=Jeffrey|year=2014|title=The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages|publisher=Routledge|url={{googlebooks|Zod9AwAAQBAJ|page=230|plainurl=y}}|isbn=978-1-317-67817-5|page=230}}</ref> In 754, at the urgent request of Pope Stephen, the Frankish king [[Pepin the Short]] conquered the Lombards. He then [[Donation of Pepin|gifted]] the lands of the former exarchate to the pope, thus initiating the [[Papal States]]. Rome and the Byzantine East would delve into further conflict during the [[Photian schism]] of the 860s, when [[Photios I of Constantinople|Photius]] criticized the Latin west of adding of the ''[[filioque]]'' clause after being excommunicated by [[Pope Nicholas I|Nicholas I]]. Though the schism was reconciled, unresolved issues would lead to further division.<ref>{{cite book|last=Walker|first=Willston|year=1985|title=History of the Christian Church|publisher=Simon and Schuster|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bFw8PtQhpVoC&pg=PA250|isbn=978-0-684-18417-3|pages=250–251|access-date=31 March 2021|archive-date=10 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240310112235/https://books.google.com/books?id=bFw8PtQhpVoC&pg=PA250#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> In the 11th century, the efforts of [[Hildebrand of Sovana]] led to the creation of the [[College of Cardinals]] to elect new popes, starting with [[Pope Alexander II]] in the [[Papal election, 1061|papal election of 1061]]. When Alexander II died, Hildebrand was elected to succeed him, as [[Pope Gregory VII]]. The basic election system of the College of Cardinals which Gregory VII helped establish has continued to function into the 21st century. Pope Gregory VII further initiated the [[Gregorian Reforms]] regarding the independence of the clergy from secular authority. This led to the [[Investiture Controversy]] between the church and the [[Holy Roman Emperor]]s, over which had the authority to appoint bishops and popes.<ref name="Vidmar107">Vidmar, ''The Catholic Church Through the Ages'' (2005), pp. 107–11</ref><ref name="Duffy78">Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners'' (1997), p. 78, quote: "By contrast, Paschal's successor [[Pope Eugene II|Eugenius II]] (824–7), elected with imperial influence, gave away most of these papal gains. He acknowledged the Emperor's sovereignty in the papal state, and he accepted a constitution imposed by Lothair which established imperial supervision of the administration of Rome, imposed an oath to the Emperor on all citizens, and required the pope–elect to swear fealty before he could be consecrated. Under [[Pope Sergius II|Sergius II]] (844–7) it was even agreed that the pope could not be consecrated without an imperial mandate and that the ceremony must be in the presence of his representative, a revival of some of the more galling restrictions of Byzantine rule."</ref> In 1095, [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] emperor [[Alexios I Komnenos|Alexius I]] appealed to [[Pope Urban II]] for help against renewed Muslim invasions in the [[Byzantine–Seljuk Wars]],<ref name="rileysmith">Riley-Smith, p. 8</ref> which caused Urban to launch the [[First Crusade]] aimed at aiding the Byzantine Empire and returning the [[Holy Land]] to Christian control.{{sfn|Bokenkotter|2004|pp=140–141}} In the [[Christianity in the 11th century|11th century]], strained relations between the primarily Greek church and the Latin Church separated them in the [[East–West Schism]], partially due to conflicts over [[papal]] authority. The [[Fourth Crusade]] and the sacking of Constantinople by renegade crusaders proved the final breach.<ref>{{cite book|last=Phillips|first=Jonathan|title=The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople|publisher=Penguin Books|year=2005|url={{googlebooks|kkA2nomlPLwC|pg=PT19|plainurl=y}}|isbn=978-1-101-12772-8|page=PT19}}</ref> In this age great gothic cathedrals in France were an expression of popular pride in the Christian faith. In the early 13th century [[mendicant orders]] were founded by [[Francis of Assisi]] and [[Saint Dominic|Dominic de Guzmán]]. The ''studia conventualia'' and ''[[studium generale|studia generalia]]'' of the mendicant orders played a large role in the transformation of church-sponsored cathedral schools and palace schools, such as that of [[Charlemagne]] at [[Aachen]], into the prominent universities of Europe.<ref>Woods, pp. 44–48</ref> [[Scholasticism|Scholastic]] theologians and philosophers such as the Dominican priest [[Thomas Aquinas]] studied and taught at these studia. Aquinas' ''Summa Theologica'' was an intellectual milestone in its synthesis of the legacy of [[Ancient Greek philosophy|ancient Greek philosophers]] such as Plato and Aristotle with the content of Christian revelation.{{sfn|Bokenkotter|2004|pp=158–159}} A growing sense of church-state conflicts marked the 14th century. To escape instability in Rome, [[Pope Clement V|Clement V]] in 1309 became the first of seven popes to reside in the fortified city of [[Avignon]] in southern France<ref name="Duffy122">Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners'' (1997), p. 122</ref> during a period known as the [[Avignon Papacy]]. The Avignon Papacy ended in 1376 when the pope returned to Rome,<ref name="McManners232">Morris, p. 232</ref> but was followed in 1378 by the 38-year-long [[Western Schism|Western schism]], with claimants to the papacy in Rome, Avignon and (after 1409) Pisa.<ref name="McManners232"/> The matter was largely resolved in 1415–17 at the [[Council of Constance]], with the claimants in Rome and Pisa agreeing to resign and the third claimant excommunicated by the cardinals, who held a new election naming [[Pope Martin V|Martin V]] pope.<ref name="McManners240">McManners, p. 240</ref> In 1438, the [[Council of Florence]] convened, which featured a strong dialogue focussed on understanding the theological differences between the East and West, with the hope of reuniting the Catholic and Orthodox churches.<ref>{{cite book|last=Geanakoplos|first=Deno John|year=1989|title=Constantinople and the West|location=Madison, WI|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|isbn=978-0-299-11880-8}}</ref> Several eastern churches reunited, forming the majority of the [[Eastern Catholic Churches]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Collinge|first=William J.|year=2012|title=Historical Dictionary of Catholicism|publisher=Scarecrow Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LR0Nyt3bi_MC&pg=PA169|isbn=978-0-8108-5755-1|page=169|access-date=31 March 2021|archive-date=8 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230908080036/https://books.google.com/books?id=LR0Nyt3bi_MC&pg=PA169|url-status=live}}</ref> ===Age of Discovery=== {{Main|Catholic Church and the Age of Discovery}} The [[Age of Discovery]] beginning in the 15th century saw the expansion of Western Europe's political and cultural influence worldwide. Because of the prominent role the strongly Catholic nations of Spain and Portugal played in Western colonialism, Catholicism was spread to the Americas, Asia and Oceania by explorers, conquistadors, and missionaries, as well as by the transformation of societies through the socio-political mechanisms of colonial rule. [[Pope Alexander VI]] had awarded colonial rights over most of the newly discovered lands to [[Spanish Empire|Spain]] and [[Portuguese Empire|Portugal]]<ref name="Koschorke13">Koschorke, pp. 13, 283</ref> and the ensuing ''[[Patronato real|patronato]]'' system allowed state authorities, not the Vatican, to control all clerical appointments in the new colonies.<ref>Hastings (1994), p. 72</ref> In 1521 the Portuguese explorer [[Ferdinand Magellan]] made the first Catholic converts in the [[Spanish East Indies|Philippines]].<ref name="Koschorke21">Koschorke, p. 21</ref> Elsewhere, Portuguese missionaries under the Spanish Jesuit [[Francis Xavier]] evangelized in India, China, and Japan.<ref name="Koschorke3">Koschorke, pp. 3, 17</ref> The [[French colonization of the Americas]] beginning in the 16th century established a Catholic [[French language|francophone]] population and forbade non-Catholics to settle in [[Quebec]].<ref>Lyons (2013), p. 17</ref> ===Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation=== {{Main|Protestant Reformation|Counter-Reformation}} {{See also|Martin Luther|Ninety-five Theses}} {{multiple image | footer = In 1517, [[Martin Luther]] (left), originally an [[Order of Saint Augustine|Augustinian]] friar, posted and published ''[[Ninety-five Theses]]'' (right), detailing Luther's opposition to what he saw as the Roman Catholic Church's abuse and corruption by Catholic clergy, including their sale of plenary indulgences, which were certificates supposed to reduce the temporal punishment in purgatory for sins committed by the purchasers or their loved ones. Luther's publication and release of the document is widely credited with launching the [[Reformation]]. | align = left | image1 = Martin Luther by Cranach-restoration.jpg | width1 = 186 | caption1 = | alt1 = | image2 = Luther 95 Thesen.png | width2 = 140 | caption2 = | alt2 = }} In 1415, [[Jan Hus]] was burned at the stake for heresy, but his reform efforts encouraged [[Martin Luther]], an [[Order of Saint Augustine|Augustinian]] friar in modern-day Germany, who [[History of Lutheranism#The start of the Reformation|sent]] his ''[[Ninety-five Theses]]'' to several bishops in 1517.{{sfn|Bokenkotter|2004|p=215}} His theses protested key points of Catholic [[doctrine]] as well as the sale of [[indulgence]]s, and along with the [[Leipzig Debate]] this led to his [[Martin Luther#Excommunication|excommunication]] in 1521.{{sfn|Bokenkotter|2004|p=215}}<ref name="Vidmar184">Vidmar, p. 184.</ref> In [[Switzerland]], [[Huldrych Zwingli]], [[John Calvin]] and other [[Protestant Reformers]] further criticized Catholic teachings. These challenges developed into the Reformation, which gave birth to the great majority of [[Protestant]] [[list of Christian denominations|denominations]]{{sfn|Bokenkotter|2004|pp=223–224}} and also [[crypto-protestantism|crypto-Protestantism]] within the Catholic Church.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Fernández|first=Luis Martínez|title=Crypto-Protestants and Pseudo-Catholics in the Nineteenth-Century Hispanic Caribbean|journal=Journal of Ecclesiastical History|volume=51|issue=2|pages=347–365|year=2000|doi=10.1017/S0022046900004255|s2cid=162296826}}</ref> Meanwhile, [[Henry VIII]] petitioned [[Pope Clement VII]] for a [[Annulment (Catholic Church)|declaration of nullity]] concerning his marriage to [[Catherine of Aragon]]. When this was denied, he had the [[Acts of Supremacy]] passed to make himself [[Supreme Head of the Church of England]], spurring the [[English Reformation]] and the eventual development of [[Anglicanism]].{{sfn|Bokenkotter|2004|pp=235–237}} The Reformation contributed to clashes between the Protestant [[Schmalkaldic League]] and the Catholic Emperor [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] and his allies. The first nine-year war ended in 1555 with the [[Peace of Augsburg]] but continued tensions produced a far graver conflict—the [[Thirty Years' War]]—which broke out in 1618.<ref name="Vidmar233"/> In France, a series of conflicts termed the [[French Wars of Religion]] was fought from 1562 to 1598 between the [[Huguenot]]s (French [[Calvinists]]) and the forces of the [[Catholic League (French)|French Catholic League]], which were backed and funded by a series of popes.<ref name="Duffy177">Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners'' (1997), pp. 177–178</ref> This ended under [[Pope Clement VIII]], who hesitantly accepted King [[Henry IV of France|Henry IV's]] 1598 [[Edict of Nantes]] granting civil and [[religious toleration]] to French Protestants.<ref name="Vidmar233">Vidmar, ''The Catholic Church Through the Ages'' (2005), p. 233</ref><ref name="Duffy177"/> The [[Council of Trent]] (1545–1563) became the driving force behind the [[Counter-Reformation]] in response to the Protestant movement. Doctrinally, it reaffirmed central Catholic teachings such as [[transubstantiation]] and the requirement for love and hope as well as faith to attain salvation.{{sfn|Bokenkotter|2004|pp=242–244}} In subsequent centuries, Catholicism spread widely across the world, in part through missionaries and [[imperialism]], although its hold on European populations declined due to the growth of [[religious scepticism]] during and after the Enlightenment.<ref>Maxwell, Melvin. ''Bible Truth or Church Tradition'', p. 70</ref> ===Enlightenment and modern period=== {{Main|Age of Enlightenment}} {{Modern persecutions of the Catholic Church}} [[File:Ruínas 1.jpg|thumb|Ruins of the [[Jesuit missions among the Guaraní|Jesuit Reduction]] at [[São Miguel das Missões]] in Brazil]] From the 17th century onward, the Enlightenment questioned the power and influence of the Catholic Church over Western society.<ref name="Pollard8">Pollard, pp. 7–8</ref> In the 18th century, writers such as [[Voltaire]] and the ''[[Encyclopédistes]]'' wrote biting critiques of both religion and the Catholic Church. One target of their criticism was the 1685 [[revocation of the Edict of Nantes]] by King [[Louis XIV of France]], which ended a century-long policy of religious toleration of Protestant Huguenots. As the papacy resisted pushes for [[Gallicanism]], the [[French Revolution]] of 1789 shifted power to the state, caused the destruction of churches, the establishment of a [[Cult of Reason]],{{sfn|Bokenkotter|2004|pp=283–285}} and the martyrdom of [[Martyrs of Compiègne|nuns]] during the ''[[Reign of Terror]]''.<ref>{{CathEncy|wstitle=The Sixteen Blessed Teresian Martyrs of Compiègne}}</ref> In 1798, [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]]'s General [[Louis-Alexandre Berthier]] invaded the [[Italian Peninsula]], imprisoning [[Pope Pius VI]], who died in captivity. Napoleon later re-established the Catholic Church in France through the [[Concordat of 1801]].<ref name="Collins176">Collins, p. 176</ref> The end of the [[Napoleonic Wars]] brought Catholic revival and the return of the [[Papal States]].<ref>Duffy, pp. 214–216</ref> In 1854, [[Pope Pius IX]], with the support of the overwhelming majority of Catholic bishops, whom he had consulted from 1851 to 1853, proclaimed the [[Immaculate Conception]] as a [[dogma in the Catholic Church]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/audiences/alpha/data/aud19930324en.html|title=John Paul II, General Audience|publisher=Vatican.va|date=24 March 1993|access-date=30 June 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810175256/https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/audiences/alpha/data/aud19930324en.html|archive-date=10 August 2011}}</ref> In 1870, the [[First Vatican Council]] affirmed the doctrine of [[papal infallibility]] when exercised in specifically defined pronouncements,<ref name="Leith">Leith, ''Creeds of the Churches'' (1963), p. 143</ref><ref name="Duffy232">Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners'' (1997), p. 232</ref> striking a blow to the rival position of [[Conciliar Church|conciliarism]]. Controversy over this and other issues resulted in a breakaway movement called the [[Old Catholic Church#First Vatican Council, Old Catholic Union of Utrecht|Old Catholic Church]],<ref name="Fahlbusch">Fahlbusch, ''The Encyclopedia of Christianity'' (2001), p. 729</ref> The [[Italian unification]] of the 1860s incorporated the Papal States, including Rome itself from 1870, into the [[Kingdom of Italy]], thus ending the papacy's [[temporal power (papal)|temporal power]]. In response, Pope Pius IX excommunicated [[Victor Emmanuel II|King Victor Emmanuel II]], refused payment for the land, and rejected the Italian [[Law of Guarantees]], which granted him special privileges. To avoid placing himself in visible subjection to the Italian authorities, he remained a "[[prisoner in the Vatican]]".<ref>{{cite book|last=Kertzer|first=David I.|year=2006|title=Prisoner of the Vatican|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y_4eaFsFdI4C&pg=PT155|isbn=978-0-547-34716-5|page=PT155|access-date=31 March 2021|archive-date=10 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240310112426/https://books.google.com/books?id=y_4eaFsFdI4C&pg=PT155#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> This stand-off, which was spoken of as the ''[[Roman Question]]'', was resolved by the 1929 [[Lateran Treaties]], whereby the Holy See acknowledged Italian sovereignty over the former Papal States in return for payment and Italy's recognition of papal sovereignty over Vatican City as a new sovereign and independent state.<ref>{{cite book|chapter='Utterly Faithless Specimens': Italians in the Catholic Church in America|first=Peter R.|last=D'Agostino|editor-last=Connell|editor-first=William J.|editor2-last=Gardaphé|editor2-first=Fred|title=Anti-Italianism: Essays on a Prejudice|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2010|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qp_GAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA33|isbn=978-0-230-11532-3|pages=33–34|access-date=31 March 2021|archive-date=10 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240310112304/https://books.google.com/books?id=qp_GAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA33#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> Catholic missionaries generally supported, and sought to facilitate, the European imperial powers' [[Scramble for Africa|conquest of Africa]] during the late nineteenth century. According to the historian of religion [[Adrian Hastings]], Catholic missionaries were generally unwilling to defend African rights or encourage Africans to see themselves as equals to Europeans, in contrast to Protestant missionaries, who were more willing to oppose colonial injustices.<ref>Adrian Hastings, ''The Church in Africa, 1450 – 1950'', Oxford: Clarendon, 1996, 394 – 490</ref> ===20th century=== <!--Following paragraph includes text copied from the article on the [[Terrible Triangle]] -->{{Main|Catholic Church in the 20th century}} [[File:Members of the Royal 22e Regiment in audience with Pope Pius XII.jpg|thumb|Members of the Canadian Army's [[Royal 22nd Regiment]] in audience with [[Pope Pius XII]] on 4 July 1944, following the [[Battle of Anzio]], which liberated Rome from [[Nazi Germany|Nazi German]] and the [[Italian Social Republic|Italian fascist]] occupation during [[World War II]]]] [[File:Second Vatican Council by Lothar Wolleh 003.jpg|thumb|Bishops listen during the [[Second Vatican Council]] in the early 1960s]] [[File:President Ronald Reagan and Nancy Reagan meet with Pope John Paul II at the Vatican Library.jpg|thumb|[[Pope John Paul II]] and then U.S. president [[Ronald Reagan]] (pictured with his wife [[Nancy Reagan|Nancy]]) meeting in June 1982; both Pope John Paul II and Reagan were credited with contributing to the [[Revolutions of 1989]], which led to the fall of communism and the end of the [[Cold War]] two years later, in 1991.]] During the 20th century, the church's global reach continued to grow, despite the rise of anti-Catholic authoritarian regimes and the collapse of European Empires, accompanied by a general decline in religious observance in the West. Under Popes [[Benedict XV]], and [[Pius XII]], the [[Holy See]] sought to maintain public neutrality through the World Wars, acting as peace broker and delivering aid to the victims of the conflicts. In the 1960s, [[Pope John XXIII]] convened the [[Second Vatican Council]], which ushered in radical change to church ritual and practice, and in the later 20th century, the long reign of [[Pope John Paul II]] contributed to the [[fall of communism]] in Europe, and a new public and international role for the papacy.<ref>Geoffrey Blainey; A Short History of Christianity; Viking; 2011</ref><ref name="communist">{{cite news|title=Pope Stared Down Communism in Homeland – and Won|publisher=CBC News|date=April 2005|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/obit/pope/communism_homeland.html|access-date=31 January 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071223141702/http://www.cbc.ca/news/obit/pope/communism_homeland.html|archive-date=23 December 2007}}</ref><!-- The following sentence is needed for neutral coverage of several notable controversies, as well as to summarize significant content within the article. Please do not remove without a discussion on the talk page. --> From the late 20th century, the Catholic Church has been [[Criticism of the Catholic Church|criticized]] for its doctrines on [[Catholic teachings on sexual morality|sexuality]], its inability to [[Catholic Church doctrine on the ordination of women|ordain women]], and its handling of [[Catholic Church sexual abuse cases|sexual abuse cases]]. <!-- end restoration --> Pope [[Pius X]] (1903–1914) renewed the independence of papal office by abolishing the veto of Catholic powers in papal elections, and his successors [[Benedict XV]] (1914–1922) and [[Pius XI]] (1922–1939) concluded the modern independence of the Vatican State within Italy.<ref>''Lives of the Popes''; Michael J Walsh, Universal International; 1998; p. 239, p.241</ref> Benedict XV was elected at the outbreak of the [[First World War]]. He attempted to mediate between the powers and established a Vatican relief office, to assist victims of the war and reunite families.<ref name="Popes p.240">''Lives of the Popes''; Michael J Walsh, Universal International; 1998; p.240</ref> The interwar [[Pope Pius XI]] modernized the papacy, appointing 40 indigenous bishops and concluding fifteen concordats, including the [[Lateran Treaty]] with Italy which founded the [[Vatican City State]].<ref>''Lives of the Popes''; Michael J Walsh, Universal International; 1998; p.241-2</ref> His successor [[Pope Pius XII]] led the Catholic Church through the [[Second World War]] and early [[Cold War]]. Like his predecessors, Pius XII sought to publicly maintain Vatican neutrality in the War, and established aid networks to help victims, but he secretly [[Pope Pius XII and the German Resistance|assisted the anti-Hitler resistance]] and shared intelligence with the Allies.<ref name="Popes p.240"/> His first encyclical ''[[Summi Pontificatus]]'' (1939) expressed dismay at the [[1939 Invasion of Poland]] and reiterated Catholic teaching against racism.<ref name="Cook983">Cook, p. 983</ref> He expressed concern against race killings [[Pope Pius XII's 1942 Christmas address|on Vatican Radio]], and intervened diplomatically to attempt to block Nazi deportations of Jews in various countries from 1942 to 1944. But the Pope's insistence on public neutrality and diplomatic language has become a source of much criticism and debate.<ref>[https://spectator.org/46578_hitlers-pope/ Hitler's Pope?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221102174409/https://spectator.org/46578_hitlers-pope/ |date=2 November 2022 }}; Martin Gilbert; The American Spectator; 18 August 2006</ref> Nevertheless, in every country under German occupation, priests played a major part in rescuing Jews.<ref>Gilbert, Martin (2004). The Righteous: The Unsung Heroes of the Holocaust. Henry Holt and Company. ISBN 978-1-4299-0036-2, p 299</ref> Israeli historian [[Pinchas Lapide]] estimated that [[Rescue of Jews by Catholics during the Holocaust|Catholic rescue of Jews]] amounted to somewhere between 700,000 and 860,000 people.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lapomarda |first=Vincent A. |title=The Jesuits and the Third Reich |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5mO7AAAACAAJ&pg=PA3 |year=2005 |publisher=E. Mellen Press |isbn=978-0-7734-6265-6 |page=3}}</ref> The [[Nazi persecution of the Catholic Church in Germany|Nazi persecution of the Catholic Church]] was at its most intense [[Nazi persecution of the Catholic Church in Poland|in Poland]], and [[Catholic resistance to Nazi Germany|Catholic resistance to Nazism]] took various forms. Some 2,579 Catholic clergy were sent to the [[Priest Barracks of Dachau|Priest Barracks]] of [[Dachau Concentration Camp]], including 400 Germans.<ref>Ian Kershaw; Hitler a Biography; 2008 Edn; W.W. Norton & Company; London; pp. 210–11</ref><ref>Berben, Paul (1975). Dachau, 1933–1945: the official history. Norfolk Press. ISBN 978-0-85211-009-6, pp276-277</ref> Thousands of priests, nuns and brothers were imprisoned, taken to a concentration camp, tortured and murdered, including Saints [[Maximilian Kolbe]] and [[Edith Stein]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www1.yadvashem.org/yv/en/holocaust/about/01/non_jews_persecution.asp |title=Non-Jewish Victims of Persecution in Germany |publisher=Yad Vashem |access-date=28 October 2010 |archive-date=29 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101129015947/http://www1.yadvashem.org/yv/en/holocaust/about/01/non_jews_persecution.asp |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>Erika Weinzierl: Kirchlicher Widerstand gegen den Nationalsozialismus. In: Themen der Zeitgeschichte und der Gegenwart. Vienna 2004, {{ISBN|3-8258-7549-0}}, pp 76.</ref> Catholics fought on both sides in the conflict. Catholic clergy played a leading role in the government of the fascist [[Slovak State]], which collaborated with the Nazis, copied their anti-Semitic policies, and helped them carry out the Holocaust in Slovakia. [[Jozef Tiso]], the President of the Slovak State and a Catholic priest, supported his government's deportation of Slovakian Jews to extermination camps.<ref>James Ward, ''Priest, Politician, Collaborator: Jozef Tiso and the Making of Fascist Slovakia'', Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2013, 202 – 245</ref> The Vatican protested against these Jewish deportations in Slovakia and in other Nazi puppet regimes including [[Vichy France]], Croatia, [[Bulgaria]], Italy and Hungary.<ref>Martin Gilbert; ''The Holocaust: The Jewish Tragedy''; Collins; London; 1986; pp. 202, 203, 206–207, 212–214, 451, 466.</ref><ref>Mark Mazower; ''Hitler's Empire – Nazi Rule in Occupied Europe''; Penguin; 2008; {{ISBN|978-0-7139-9681-4}}; p.395</ref> Around 1943, [[Adolf Hitler]] planned the kidnapping of the Pope and his internment in Germany. He gave SS General Wolff a corresponding order to prepare for the action.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.spiegel.de/geschichte/pius-xii-wie-adolf-hitler-den-papst-entfuehren-lassen-wollte-a-1101877.html|title=Pius XII: Wie Adolf Hitler den Papst entführen lassen wollte|first=Katja|last=Iken|newspaper=Der Spiegel|date=7 July 2016|access-date=5 February 2021|archive-date=13 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813232941/https://www.spiegel.de/geschichte/pius-xii-wie-adolf-hitler-den-papst-entfuehren-lassen-wollte-a-1101877.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wienerzeitung.at/nachrichten/politik/welt/379790_Hitler-plante-Entfuehrung-Pius-XII..html|title=Hitler plante Entführung Pius' XII. – "Streng geheime" Berichte faschistischer Parteigrößen entdeckt|first=Wiener Zeitung|last=Online|website=Weltpolitik Nachrichten – Wiener Zeitung Online|date=9 September 1998|access-date=5 February 2021|archive-date=24 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624175822/https://www.wienerzeitung.at/nachrichten/politik/welt/379790_Hitler-plante-Entfuehrung-Pius-XII..html|url-status=live}}</ref> While [[Pope Pius XII]] has been credited with helping to [[Pope Pius XII and the Holocaust|save hundreds of thousands of Jews]] during the [[The Holocaust|Holocaust]],{{sfn|Bokenkotter|2004|p=192}}<ref name="Deák">Deák, p. 182</ref> the church has also been accused of having encouraged centuries of [[Christianity and antisemitism|antisemitism]] by its teachings<ref>{{cite news|last=Eakin|first=Emily|title=New Accusations Of a Vatican Role In Anti-Semitism; Battle Lines Were Drawn After Beatification of Pope Pius IX|work=The New York Times|date=1 September 2001|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/09/01/arts/new-accusations-vatican-role-anti-semitism-battle-lines-were-drawn-after.html|access-date=9 March 2008|archive-date=25 January 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090125154923/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B04E3DF1130F932A3575AC0A9679C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all|url-status=live}}</ref> and not doing enough to stop Nazi atrocities.<ref>Phayer (2000), pp. 50–57</ref> Many Nazi criminals escaped overseas after the Second World War, also because they had powerful supporters from the Vatican.<ref>{{cite web|last=Welle|first=Deutsche|title=The ratlines: What did the Vatican know about Nazi escape routes?|date=1 March 2020|url=https://www.dw.com/en/the-ratlines-what-did-the-vatican-know-about-nazi-escape-routes/a-52555068|access-date=7 February 2021|website=DW.COM|language=en-GB|archive-date=4 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231004152242/https://www.dw.com/en/the-ratlines-what-did-the-vatican-know-about-nazi-escape-routes/a-52555068|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.welt.de/geschichte/zweiter-weltkrieg/article124863191/Fluchthilfe-fuer-Nazis-vom-Vatikan-und-US-Agenten.html|title=Rattenlinien: Fluchthilfe für Nazis – vom Vatikan und US-Agenten|first=Manuel|last=Opitz|newspaper=Die Welt|date=15 February 2014|access-date=5 February 2021|archive-date=27 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201127054736/https://www.welt.de/geschichte/zweiter-weltkrieg/article124863191/Fluchthilfe-fuer-Nazis-vom-Vatikan-und-US-Agenten.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.derstandard.at/story/2000114377607/ns-fluchthelfer-der-braune-bischof-und-die-rattenlinie|title=NS-Fluchthelfer: Der "braune Bischof" und die Rattenlinie|website=[[Der Standard]]|access-date=5 February 2021|archive-date=11 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411062724/https://www.derstandard.at/story/2000114377607/ns-fluchthelfer-der-braune-bischof-und-die-rattenlinie|url-status=live}}</ref> The judgment of Pius XII is made more difficult by the sources, because the church archives for his tenure as nuncio, cardinal secretary of state and pope are in part closed or not yet processed.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/judgment-day-vatican-ready-to-open-its-holocaust-files-to-the-world-drp9dgpc6|title=Judgment day: Vatican ready to open its Holocaust files to the world|first=Philip Willan|last=Rome|work=[[The Times]]|access-date=5 February 2021|archive-date=1 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201134510/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/judgment-day-vatican-ready-to-open-its-holocaust-files-to-the-world-drp9dgpc6|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Second Vatican Council]] (1962–1965) introduced the most significant changes to Catholic practices since the [[Council of Trent]], four centuries before.<ref>The Second Vatican Council Celebrating Its Achievements and the Future p. 86</ref> Initiated by [[Pope John XXIII]], this ecumenical council modernized the practices of the Catholic Church, allowing the Mass to be said in the [[vernacular]] (local language) and encouraging "fully conscious, and active participation in liturgical celebrations".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19631204_sacrosanctum-concilium_en.html |title=Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy Sacrosanctum Concilium |publisher=Vatican.va |date=4 December 1963 |access-date=12 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080221180735/https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19631204_sacrosanctum-concilium_en.html |archive-date=21 February 2008}}</ref> It intended to engage the church more closely with the present world (''[[aggiornamento]]''), which was described by its advocates as an "opening of the windows".<ref name="Duffy272">Duffy, pp. 270–276</ref> In addition to changes in the liturgy, it led to changes to the church's approach to [[Catholic Church and ecumenism|ecumenism]],<ref>Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners'' (1997), pp. 272, 274</ref> and a call to improved relations with non-Christian religions, especially Judaism, in its document ''[[Nostra aetate]]''.<ref name="NOSTRA AETATE">{{cite web|author=Pope Paul VI|url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_decl_19651028_nostra-aetate_en.html|title=''Nostra aetate'': Declaration on the Relation of the Church to Non-Christian Religions|date=28 October 1965|access-date=16 June 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081220214550/https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_decl_19651028_nostra-aetate_en.html|archive-date=20 December 2008|quote=According to Section 4: "True, the Jewish authorities and those who followed their lead pressed for the death of Christ; still, what happened in His passion cannot be charged against all the Jews, without distinction, then alive, nor against the Jews of today. Although the Church is the new people of God, the Jews should not be presented as rejected or accursed by God, as if this followed from the Holy Scriptures."}}</ref> The council, however, generated significant controversy in implementing its reforms: proponents of the "[[Spirit of Vatican II]]" such as Swiss theologian [[Hans Küng]] said that Vatican II had "not gone far enough" to change church policies.<ref>Bauckham, p. 373</ref> [[Traditionalist Catholics]], such as [[Archbishop]] [[Marcel Lefebvre]], however, strongly criticized the council, arguing that its liturgical reforms led "to the destruction of the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass and the sacraments", among other issues.<ref>{{cite journal|last=O'Neel|first=Brian|url=http://www.catholic.com/thisrock/2003/0304fea2.asp|title=Holier Than Thou: How Rejection of Vatican II Led Lefebvre into Schism|journal=This Rock|volume=14|issue=4|location=San Diego|publisher=Catholic Answers|date=3 April 2003|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100510014807/http://www.catholic.com/thisrock/2003/0304fea2.asp|archive-date=10 May 2010}}</ref> The teaching on the morality of [[Birth control|contraception]] also came under scrutiny; after a series of disagreements, ''[[Humanae vitae]]'' upheld the church's prohibition of all forms of contraception.<ref>{{cite book|last=May|first=John F.|year=2012|title=World Population Policies: Their Origin, Evolution, and Impact|publisher=Springer|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UCQRxtm3Z34C&pg=PA202|isbn=978-94-007-2837-0|pages=202–203|access-date=31 March 2021|archive-date=10 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240310112236/https://books.google.com/books?id=UCQRxtm3Z34C&pg=PA202#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Kinkel|first=R. John|year=2014|title=Papal Paralysis: How the Vatican Dealt with the AIDS Crisis|publisher=Lexington|url={{googlebooks|O9dkAgAAQBAJ|page=2|plainurl=y}}|isbn=978-0-7391-7684-9|page=2}}</ref><ref group="note">While ruling contraception to be prohibited, Pope Paul VI did, however, consider natural family planning methods to be morally permissible if used with just cause.</ref><ref name="HV_then_now">{{cite web|url=http://www.zenit.org/en/articles/germain-grisez-on-humanae-vitae-then-and-now|title=Germain Grisez on "Humanae Vitae", Then and Now: The Dust Still Hasn't Settled, But There Are Signs of Hope|publisher=Zenit: The World Seen from Rome|date=14 July 2003|access-date=16 November 2014|archive-date=29 November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129021843/http://www.zenit.org/en/articles/germain-grisez-on-humanae-vitae-then-and-now|url-status=live}}</ref> <!--"Paul was determined not to ask anything of married couples that God does not require of them",--> In 1978, Pope [[John Paul II]], formerly [[Archbishop of Kraków]] in the [[Polish People's Republic]], became the first non-Italian pope in 455 years. His 26 1/2-year [[pontificate]] was one of the longest in history, and was credited with hastening the fall of communism in Europe.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.history.co.uk/this-day-in-history/April-02.html;jsessionid=08931E713115A304B13BB1A6FA315A63.public1|title=2 April – This Day in History|publisher=History.co.uk|access-date=28 October 2010|archive-date=13 May 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513125001/http://www.history.co.uk/this-day-in-history/April-02.html;jsessionid=08931E713115A304B13BB1A6FA315A63.public1|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author=Peter and Margaret Hebblethwaite and Peter Stanford|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2005/apr/02/guardianobituaries.catholicism|title=Obituary: Pope John Paul II|work=The Guardian|date=2 April 2005|access-date=28 October 2010|location=London|archive-date=29 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130829041832/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2005/apr/02/guardianobituaries.catholicism|url-status=live}}</ref> John Paul II sought to evangelize an increasingly [[Secularism|secular world]]. He travelled more than any other pope, visiting 129 countries,<ref>{{cite book|last=Maxwell-Stuart|first=P.G.|year=2006|title=Chronicle of the Popes: Trying to Come Full Circle|location=London|publisher=Thames & Hudson|page=234|isbn=978-0-500-28608-1}}</ref> and used television and radio as means of spreading the church's teachings. He also emphasized the [[Dignity of labour|dignity of work]] and natural rights of labourers to have [[Living wage|fair wages]] and safe conditions in ''[[Laborem exercens]]''.<ref>{{cite web|author=John Paul II|url=https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/encyclicals/documents/hf_jp-ii_enc_25031995_evangelium-vitae_en.html|title=Laborem exercens|publisher=Libreria Editrice Vaticana|date=15 May 1981|access-date=16 November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141027122758/https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/encyclicals/documents/hf_jp-ii_enc_25031995_evangelium-vitae_en.html|archive-date=27 October 2014}}</ref> He emphasized several church teachings, including moral exhortations against abortion, [[euthanasia]], and against widespread use of the death penalty, in ''[[Evangelium Vitae]]''.<ref>{{cite web|author=John Paul II|url=https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/encyclicals/documents/hf_jp-ii_enc_25031995_evangelium-vitae_en.html|title=Evangelium Vitae|publisher=Libreria Editrice Vaticana|date=25 March 1995|access-date=16 November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141027122758/https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/encyclicals/documents/hf_jp-ii_enc_25031995_evangelium-vitae_en.html|archive-date=27 October 2014}}</ref> ===21st century=== [[Pope Benedict XVI]], elected in 2005, was known for upholding traditional [[Christian values]] against [[secularization]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.deseretnews.com/article/1,5143,635185276,00.html |title=Benedict's encyclical offers hope for world |work=Deseret News |first=Jerry Earl |last=Johnston |date=18 February 2006 |access-date=12 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402092429/http://www.deseretnews.com/article/1%2C5143%2C635185276%2C00.html |archive-date=2 April 2015}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20120307235713/http://www.deseretnews.com/article/635185276/Benedicts-encyclical-offers-hope-for-world.html WebCitation archive]</ref> and for increasing use of the [[Tridentine Mass]] as found in the [[Roman Missal]] of 1962, which he titled the "Extraordinary Form".<ref>Gledhill, Ruth [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/europe/article667813.ece "Pope set to bring back Latin Mass that divided the Church"] ''The Times'' 11 October 2006. Retrieved 21 November 2010 [https://web.archive.org/web/20110805040153/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/europe/article667813.ece WebCitation archive]</ref> Citing the frailties of advanced age, Benedict [[Resignation of Pope Benedict XVI|resigned]] in 2013, becoming the first pope to do so in nearly 600 years.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.cnn.com/2013/02/12/world/europe/pope-benedict-resignation/ |first1=Laura |last1=Smith-Spark |first2=Hada |last2=Messia |title=Pope's resignation was not forced by health issues, spokesman says |work=CNN |date=13 February 2013 |access-date=30 March 2015 |archive-date=2 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402233151/http://www.cnn.com/2013/02/12/world/europe/pope-benedict-resignation/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Pope Francis, the current pope of the Catholic Church, became in 2013 the first pope from the Americas, the first from the [[Southern Hemisphere]], and the first Pope from outside Europe since the eighth-century [[Pope Gregory III|Gregory III]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Donadio|first=Rachel|date=27 October 2019|title=Pope Francis, the Revolutionary, Takes On the Traditionalists|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2019/10/pope-francis-revolutionary-culture-war/600877/|access-date=19 June 2021|website=The Atlantic|language=en|archive-date=28 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210728034227/https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2019/10/pope-francis-revolutionary-culture-war/600877/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Ambrosino|first=Brandon|date=13 July 2018|title=Everything you need to know about Pope Francis|url=https://www.vox.com/2018/7/13/17570124/who-is-pope-francis|access-date=19 June 2021|website=Vox|language=en|archive-date=24 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624203402/https://www.vox.com/2018/7/13/17570124/who-is-pope-francis|url-status=live}}</ref> Francis has made efforts to further close Catholicism's estrangement with the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Churches]].<ref name="orthodox">Ritter, Karl, [http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/03/15/pope-francis-jews_n_2883560.html "Pope Francis reaches out to Jews"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160215230923/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/03/15/pope-francis-jews_n_2883560.html |date=15 February 2016 }}, huffingtonpost.com, 16 March 2013. Retrieved 16 March 2013.</ref> His installation was attended by [[Patriarch Bartholomew I of Constantinople]] of the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]],<ref name="patriarch">Demacopoulos, George E., [http://www.archons.org/news/detail.asp?id=619 "The extraordinary historical significance of His Holiness' presence at Pope Francis' installation as Bishop of Rome"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171018142627/http://www.archons.org/news/detail.asp?id=619 |date=18 October 2017 }}, Archon News (Order of St. Andrew the Apostle), 19 March 2013. Retrieved 19 March 2013.</ref> the first time since the [[East–West Schism|Great Schism]] of 1054 that the Eastern Orthodox [[Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople]] has attended a papal installation,<ref>{{cite news|title=Our Eastern Brothers|first=Alton J.|last=Pelowski|journal=Columbia|date=May 2013|pages=20–23|url=http://www.kofc.org/un/en/columbia/detail/2013_05_eastern.html|access-date=17 March 2017|archive-date=25 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525144237/http://www.kofc.org/un/en/columbia/detail/2013_05_eastern.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> while he also met [[Patriarch Kirill of Moscow]], head of the largest Eastern Orthodox church, in 2016; this was reported as the first such high-level meeting between the two churches since the [[East–West Schism|Great Schism]] of 1054.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-35565085|title=Unity call as Pope Francis holds historic talks with Russian Orthodox Patriarch|publisher=BBC|date=12 February 2016|access-date=13 February 2016|archive-date=12 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160212224729/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-35565085|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2017 during a visit in [[Egypt]], Pope Francis reestablished mutual recognition of baptism with the [[Coptic Orthodox Church]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thetrumpet.com/15756-catholics-and-copts-seek-shared-baptism|title=Catholics and Copts Recognise Shared Baptism|work=The Philadelphia Trumpet|date=3 May 2017|last1=Miille|first1=Andrew|access-date=22 May 2017|archive-date=25 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525143547/https://www.thetrumpet.com/15756-catholics-and-copts-seek-shared-baptism|url-status=live}}</ref> Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. 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