Cameroon

==History==
{{Main|History of Cameroon}}

===Early history===
[[File:Shumom-text.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Bamum script]] is a writing system developed by King Njoya in the late 19th century.]]
Present-day Cameroon was first settled in the [[Neolithic]] Era. The longest continuous inhabitants are groups such as the [[Baka people (Cameroon and Gabon)|Baka]] ([[Pygmy peoples|Pygmies]]).<ref>[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 2.</ref> From there, [[Bantu expansion|Bantu migrations]] into eastern, southern and central Africa are believed to have occurred about 2,000 years ago.<ref name="history"/> The [[Sao civilisation|Sao]] culture arose around [[Lake Chad]], {{circa|500 CE}}, and gave way to the Kanem and its successor state, the [[Kanem–Bornu Empire|Bornu Empire]]. Kingdoms, [[Fon (title)|fondoms]], and [[chiefdom]]s arose in the west.<ref name=Njung/>

[[Portuguese discoveries|Portuguese sailors]] reached the coast in 1472. They noted an abundance of the ghost shrimp ''[[Lepidophthalmus turneranus]]'' in the [[Wouri River]] and named it {{lang|pt|Rio dos Camarões}} (''Shrimp River''), which became ''Cameroon'' in English.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Pondi |first=J.E. |title=Cameroon and the Commonwealth of nations |journal=The Round Table |volume=86 |issue=344 |pages=563–570 |year=1997 |doi=10.1080/00358539708454389}}</ref> Over the following few centuries, European interests regularised trade with the coastal peoples, and Christian [[missionaries]] pushed inland.<ref name=Fanso/>

In 1896, Sultan [[Ibrahim Njoya]] created the [[Bamum script]], or Shu Mom, for the [[Bamum language]].<ref>[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 59</ref><ref name="NMAA">{{cite web|url=http://africa.si.edu/exhibits/inscribing/bamum.html|title=Bamum|publisher=National Museum of African Art, Smithsonian Institution|access-date=29 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120101155844/http://africa.si.edu/exhibits/inscribing/bamum.html|archive-date=1 January 2012}}</ref> It is taught in Cameroon today by the [[Bamum Scripts and Archives Project]].<ref name="NMAA"/>

===German rule===
{{main|Kamerun}}
Germany began to establish roots in Cameroon in 1868 when the Woermann Company of Hamburg built a warehouse. It was built on the estuary of the Wouri River. Later, [[Gustav Nachtigal]] made a treaty with one of the local kings to annex the region for the German emperor.<ref name=historyworld>{{cite web|url=http://historyworld.net|title=historyworld|access-date=17 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190407073336/http://historyworld.net/|archive-date=7 April 2019}}</ref> The [[German Empire]] claimed the territory as the colony of [[Kamerun]] in 1884 and began a steady push inland; the natives resisted. Under the aegis of Germany, commercial companies were local administrations. These [[Concession (contract)|concession]]s used [[Unfree labour|forced labour]] to run profitable banana, rubber, palm oil, and cocoa plantations.<ref name=historyworld/> Even infrastructure projects relied on a regimen of forced labour. This economic policy was much criticised by the other colonial powers.<ref name="DeLancey 125">[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 125.</ref>

===French and British rule===
{{main|French Cameroon|British Cameroon}}
[[File:UPC-LEADERS.jpg|thumb|right|Leaders of the pro-independence [[Union of the Peoples of Cameroon|UPC]]]]
With the defeat of Germany in [[World War I]], Kamerun became a [[League of Nations mandate]] territory and was split into [[French Cameroon]] ({{lang-fr|Cameroun}}) and [[British Cameroon]] in 1919. France integrated the economy of Cameroon with that of France<ref name="DeLancey 5">[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 5.</ref> and improved the infrastructure with capital investments and skilled workers, modifying the colonial system of forced labour.<ref name="DeLancey 125"/>

The British administered their territory from neighbouring [[Nigeria]]. Natives complained that this made them a neglected "colony of a colony". Nigerian migrant workers flocked to Southern Cameroons, ending forced labour altogether but angering the local natives, who felt swamped.<ref>[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 4.</ref> The League of Nations mandates were converted into [[United Nations Trusteeship Council|United Nations Trusteeships]] in 1946, and the question of independence became a pressing issue in French Cameroon.<ref name="DeLancey 5"/>

France outlawed the pro-independence political party, the [[Union of the Peoples of Cameroon]] (''Union des Populations du Cameroun''; UPC), on 13 July 1955.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Terretta | first1 = M. | title = Cameroonian Nationalists Go Global: From Forest Maquis to a Pan-African Accra | doi = 10.1017/S0021853710000253 | journal = The Journal of African History | volume = 51 | issue = 2 | pages = 189–212 | year = 2010 | s2cid = 154604590 }}</ref> This prompted a [[Bamileke War|long guerrilla war]] waged by the UPC and the assassination of several of the party's leaders, including [[Ruben Um Nyobè]], [[Félix-Roland Moumié]] and [[Ernest Ouandie]]. In the British Cameroons, the question was whether to reunify with French Cameroon or join Nigeria; the British ruled out the option of independence.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Takougang | first1 = J. | title = Nationalism, democratisation and political opportunism in Cameroon | doi = 10.1080/0258900032000142455 | journal = Journal of Contemporary African Studies | volume = 21 | issue = 3 | pages = 427–445 | year = 2003 | s2cid = 153564848 }}</ref>

===Independence===
[[File:Ahmadou Ahidjo.jpg|thumb|Former president [[Ahmadou Ahidjo]] ruled from 1960 until 1982.]]

On 1 January 1960, French Cameroun gained independence from France under President [[Ahmadou Ahidjo]]. On 1 October 1961, the formerly British [[Southern Cameroons]] gained independence from the United Kingdom by vote of the UN General Assembly and joined with French Cameroun to form the Federal Republic of Cameroon, a date which is now observed as [[Unification Day (Cameroon)|Unification Day]], a [[Public holidays in Cameroon|public holiday]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Diane Cook|title=Cameroon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jn7TBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT95|date=2 September 2014|publisher=Mason Crest|isbn=978-1-4222-9434-5|page=95}}</ref> Ahidjo used the ongoing war with the UPC to concentrate power in the presidency, continuing with this even after the suppression of the UPC in 1971.<ref name="DeLancey 6">[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 6.</ref>

His political party, the [[Cameroonian National Union|Cameroon National Union]] (CNU), became the sole legal political party on 1 September 1966 and on 20 May 1972, a referendum was passed to abolish the [[Federation|federal system of government]] in favour of a United Republic of Cameroon, headed from [[Yaoundé]].<ref>[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 19.</ref> This day is now the country's [[National Day (Cameroon)|National Day]], a public holiday.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.prc.cm/en/multimedia/photo-albums/37-20-may-national-day |title=20 May National Day |website=Presidency of the Republic of Cameroon |access-date=3 May 2019 }}</ref> Ahidjo pursued an economic policy of [[planned liberalism]], prioritising [[cash crops]] and petroleum development. The government used oil money to create a national cash reserve, pay farmers, and finance major development projects; however, many initiatives failed when Ahidjo appointed unqualified allies to direct them.<ref>[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 7.</ref>

The [[Flag of Cameroon|national flag]] was changed on 20 May 1975. Two stars were removed, replaced with a large central star as a symbol of national unity.

Ahidjo stepped down on 4 November 1982 and left power to his constitutional successor, [[Paul Biya]]. However, Ahidjo remained in control of the CNU and tried to run the country from behind the scenes until Biya and his allies pressured him into resigning. Biya began his administration by moving toward a more democratic government, but a failed [[Cameroonian Palace Guard Revolt|coup d'état]] nudged him toward the leadership style of his predecessor.<ref>[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 8.</ref>

An [[Economic crisis of Cameroon|economic crisis]] took effect in the mid-1980s to late 1990s as a result of international economic conditions, drought, falling [[petroleum]] prices, and years of corruption, mismanagement, and [[cronyism]]. Cameroon turned to foreign aid, cut government spending, and [[Privatization|privatised]] industries. With the reintroduction of multi-party politics in December 1990, the former British Southern Cameroons pressure groups called for greater autonomy, and the [[Southern Cameroons National Council]] advocated complete secession as the Republic of [[Ambazonia]].<ref name="DeLancey 9">[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 9.</ref> The 1992 Labour Code of Cameroon gives workers the freedom to belong to a trade union or not to belong to any trade union at all. It is the choice of a worker to join any trade union in their occupation, since there is more than one trade union in each occupation.<ref>''[https://scholar.google.com/scholar?cluster=2268401385755685468&authuser=2 Ginna Violet Yella. "Freedom of Trade Union Membership: An Appraisal of the 1992 Labour Code of Cameroon" United International Journal for Research & Technology (UIJRT) 1.2 (2019): 18–25.]''</ref>

[[File:Paul Biya 2014.png|thumb|left|upright|[[Paul Biya]] has ruled the country since 1982.]]
In June 2006, talks concerning a territorial dispute over the [[Bakassi]] peninsula were resolved. The talks involved President Paul Biya of Cameroon, then President [[Olusegun Obasanjo]] of Nigeria and then UN Secretary General [[Kofi Annan]], and resulted in Cameroonian control of the oil-rich peninsula. The northern portion of the territory was formally handed over to the Cameroonian government in August 2006, and the remainder of the peninsula was left to Cameroon two years later, in 2008.<ref>[http://allafrica.com/stories/200606130612.html Cameroon: Presidents Obasanjo And Biya Shake Hands on Disputed Bakassi Peninsula] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217063651/http://allafrica.com/stories/200606130612.html |date=17 February 2017 }}, ''Allafrica'', 13 June 2006</ref> The boundary change triggered a [[Bakassi conflict|local separatist insurgency]], as many Bakassians refused to accept Cameroonian rule. While most militants laid down their arms in November 2009,<ref>[https://jamestown.org/program/cameroon-rebels-threaten-security-in-oil-rich-gulf-of-guinea/ Cameroon Rebels Threaten Security in Oil-Rich Gulf of Guinea], Jamestown Foundation, 24 November 2010. Accessed 28 Aug. 2018.</ref> some carried on fighting for years.<ref>Ngwane, George. "Preventing renewed violence through peace building in the Bakassi peninsula (Cameroon)."</ref>

In February 2008, Cameroon experienced its worst violence in 15 years when a transport union strike in Douala escalated into [[2008 Cameroonian anti-government protests|violent protests]] in 31 municipal areas.<ref name=Nkemngu/><ref name=Matthews/>

In May 2014, in the wake of the [[Chibok schoolgirls kidnapping]], presidents Paul Biya of Cameroon and [[Idriss Déby]] of [[Chad]] announced they were waging war on [[Boko Haram]], and deployed troops to the Nigerian border.<ref>
{{cite news
| title        = Cameroon, Chad Deploy Troops to Fight Boko Haram – Nigeria
| work         = [[ReliefWeb]]
| access-date   = 10 June 2014
| url          = http://reliefweb.int/report/nigeria/cameroon-chad-deploy-troops-fight-boko-haram
| archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20140714173813/http://reliefweb.int/report/nigeria/cameroon-chad-deploy-troops-fight-boko-haram
| archive-date = 14 July 2014
}}
</ref> Boko Haram launched several attacks into Cameroon, killing 84 civilians in a [[December 2014 Cameroon clashes|December 2014 raid]], but suffering a heavy defeat in a [[January 2015 raid on Kolofata|raid in January 2015]]. Cameroon declared victory over Boko Haram on Cameroonian territory in September 2018.<ref>[https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/cameroon-boko-haram-1.4844513 Boko Haram has been repelled, Cameroon's leader declares], CBC News, 30 September 2018. Accessed 18 June 2019.</ref>

Since November 2016, protesters from the predominantly English-speaking [[Northwest Region (Cameroon)|Northwest]] and [[Southwest Region (Cameroon)|Southwest]] regions of the country have been campaigning for continued use of the English language in schools and courts. People were killed and hundreds jailed as a result of these protests.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.cnn.com/2016/12/15/world/cameroon-protesters-deaths/index.html|title=Rights groups call for probe into protesters' deaths in Cameroon|author=Radina Gigova|website=CNN|date=15 December 2016|access-date=29 July 2019}}</ref> In 2017, Biya's government blocked the regions' access to the Internet for three months.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-41468149|title=Cameroon internet shut for separatists|date=2 October 2017|newspaper=BBC News|access-date=20 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180920084339/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-41468149|archive-date=20 September 2018}}</ref> In September, separatists started [[Anglophone Crisis|a guerilla war]] for the independence of the Anglophone region as the Federal Republic of [[Ambazonia]]. The government responded with a military offensive, and the insurgency spread across the Northwest and Southwest regions. {{As of|2019}}, fighting between separatist guerillas and government forces continues.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-44561929|title=Burning Cameroon: Images you're not meant to see|date=25 June 2018|newspaper=BBC News|access-date=20 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180919204526/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-44561929|archive-date=19 September 2018}}</ref> During 2020, numerous terrorist attacks—many of them carried out without claims of credit—and government reprisals have led to bloodshed throughout the country.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Ekonde|first1=Daniel|date=2020-11-18|title=The world's most neglected conflict|url=https://www.newframe.com/the-worlds-most-neglected-conflict/|access-date=2020-11-27|website=New Frame|archive-date=30 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201130094247/https://www.newframe.com/the-worlds-most-neglected-conflict/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Since 2016, more than 450,000 people have fled their homes.<ref name="humanrights">{{cite news |last1=Tisdall |first1=Simon |title=In a world full of wars, why are so many of them ignored? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jun/09/world-full-of-wars-so-many-ignored-central-africa-sudan-boko-haram |work=The Guardian |date=9 June 2019}}</ref> The conflict indirectly led to an [[Chad Basin campaign (2018–2019)|upsurge]] in Boko Haram attacks, as the Cameroonian military largely withdrew from the north to focus on fighting the Ambazonian separatists.<ref>[https://natimesnews.com/2019/02/25/cameroon-national-times-there-has-been-growing-insecurity-in-the-three-northern-regions-of-cameroon-as-both-the-government-and-the-military-concentrate-their-strength-and-might-in-fighting-an-endles/ Insecurity Escalates In North Region As Gov't, Military Concentrate In Anglophone Regions] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190312124436/https://natimesnews.com/2019/02/25/cameroon-national-times-there-has-been-growing-insecurity-in-the-three-northern-regions-of-cameroon-as-both-the-government-and-the-military-concentrate-their-strength-and-might-in-fighting-an-endles/ |date=12 March 2019 }}, The National Times, 25 February 2019.Accessed 25 February 2019.</ref>

More than 30,000 people in northern Cameroon fled to Chad after ethnic clashes over [[Water conflict|access to water]] between [[Musgum people|Musgum]] fishermen and ethnic [[Chadian Arabic|Arab Choa]] herders in December 2021.<ref>{{cite news |title=Thousands flee northern Cameroon after deadly intercommunal clashes |url=https://www.france24.com/en/africa/20211209-thousands-flee-northern-cameroon-after-deadly-intercommunal-clashes |work=France 24 |date=10 December 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Northern Cameroon bears brunt of inter-ethnic clashes, 22 dead, 30 injured |url=https://www.africanews.com/2021/12/14/northern-cameroon-bears-brunt-of-inter-ethnic-clashes-22-dead-30-injured/ |work=[[Africanews]] |date=14 December 2021}}</ref>
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