Brahman

==History and literature==

===Vedic===
''Brahman'' is a concept present in Vedic [[Samhita]]s, the oldest layer of the [[Vedas]] dated to the late 2nd millennium BCE. For example,<ref name=barbarah29/>

{{Blockquote|
<poem>
The ''Ṛcs'' are limited (''parimita''),
The ''Samans'' are limited,
And the ''Yajuses'' are limited,
But of the Word ''Brahman'', there is no end.
</poem>
|Taittiriya Samhita VII.3.1.4|Translated by Barbara Holdrege<ref name=barbarah29>Barbara Holdrege (1995), Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791416402}}, page 29</ref>}}

The concept ''Brahman'' is referred to in hundreds of hymns in the Vedic literature.<ref name=mauricebrahman>[[Maurice Bloomfield]], [https://archive.org/stream/vedicconcordance00bloouoft#page/656/mode/2up A Vedic Concordance], Harvard University Press, pages 656-662</ref> The word ''Brahma'' is found in [[Rig veda]] hymns such as 2.2.10,<ref>Original: वयमग्ने अर्वता वा सुवीर्यं '''ब्रह्मणा''' वा चितयेमा जनाँ अति । अस्माकं द्युम्नमधि पञ्च कृष्टिषूच्चा स्वर्ण शुशुचीत दुष्टरम् ॥१०॥<br>Source: [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_२.२ ऋग्वेद: सूक्तं २.२] Wikisource</ref> 6.21.8,<ref>Original: स तु श्रुधीन्द्र नूतनस्य '''ब्रह्मण्य'''तो वीर कारुधायः । त्वं ह्यापिः प्रदिवि पितॄणां शश्वद्बभूथ सुहव एष्टौ ॥८॥<br>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_६.२१ ऋग्वेद: सूक्तं ६.२१] Wikisource</ref> 10.72.2<ref>Original: '''ब्रह्मण'''स्पतिरेता सं कर्मार इवाधमत् । देवानां पूर्व्ये युगेऽसतः सदजायत ॥२॥<br>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_१०.७२ ऋग्वेद: सूक्तं १०.७२] Wikisource</ref> and in [[Atharvaveda|Atharva veda]] hymns such as 6.122.5, 10.1.12, and 14.1.131.<ref name=mauricebrahman/> The concept is found in various layers of the Vedic literature; for example:<ref name=mauricebrahman/> Aitareya [[Brahmana]] 1.18.3, Kausitaki Brahmana 6.12, Satapatha Brahmana 13.5.2.5, Taittiriya Brahmana 2.8.8.10, Jaiminiya Brahmana 1.129, Taittiriya [[Aranyaka]] 4.4.1 through 5.4.1, Vajasaneyi Samhita 22.4 through 23.25, Maitrayani Samhita 3.12.1:16.2 through 4.9.2:122.15. The concept is extensively discussed in the Upanishads embedded in the Vedas (see next section), and also mentioned in the [[Vedas#Vedanga|vedāṅga]] (the limbs of Vedas) such as the Srauta sutra 1.12.12 and Paraskara Gryhasutra 3.2.10 through 3.4.5.<ref name=mauricebrahman/>

[[Jan Gonda]] states that the diverse reference of ''Brahman'' in the Vedic literature, starting with Rigveda Samhitas, convey "different senses or different shades of meaning".<ref name=jangondameaning>[[Jan Gonda]] (1962), Some Notes on the Study of Ancient-Indian Religious Terminology, ''History of Religions'', Vol. 1, No. 2 (Winter, 1962), pages 269–271.  https://www.jstor.org/stable/1062054</ref> There is no one single word in modern Western languages that can render the various shades of meaning of the word ''Brahman'' in the Vedic literature, according to Jan Gonda.<ref name=jangondameaning/> In verses considered as the most ancient, the Vedic idea of ''Brahman'' is the "power immanent in the sound, words, verses and formulas of Vedas". However, states Gonda, the verses suggest that this ancient meaning was never the only meaning, and the concept evolved and expanded in ancient India.<ref>[[Jan Gonda]] (1962), Some Notes on the Study of Ancient-Indian Religious Terminology, ''History of Religions'', Vol. 1, No. 2 (Winter, 1962), pages 271–272.  https://www.jstor.org/stable/1062054</ref>

Barbara Holdrege states that the concept ''Brahman'' is discussed in the Vedas along four major themes: as the Word or verses (''Sabdabrahman''),<ref>See Rigveda Chapter 1.164;<br>Karl Potter and Harold Coward, The Philosophy of the Grammarians, ''Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies'': Volume 5, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, {{ISBN|978-8120804265}}, pages 34–35</ref> as Knowledge embodied in Creator Principle, as Creation itself, and a Corpus of traditions.<ref>Barbara Holdrege (1995), ''Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture'', State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791416402}}, page 24</ref> Hananya Goodman states that the Vedas conceptualize ''Brahman'' as the Cosmic Principles underlying all that exists.<ref name="Hananya Goodman 1994 page 121"/> [[Gavin Flood]] states that the Vedic era witnessed a process of abstraction, where the concept of ''Brahman'' evolved and expanded from the power of sound, words and rituals to the "essence of the universe", the "deeper foundation of all phenomena", the "essence of the self ([[Ātman (Hinduism)|Atman]], Self)", and the deeper "truth of a person beyond apparent difference".<ref name=gavinflood84>Gavin Flood (1996), ''An Introduction to Hinduism'', Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-0521438780}}, pages 84–85</ref>

===Upanishads===
[[File:Mozzercork - Heart (by).jpg|thumb|Swan (Hansa, हंस) is the symbol for ''Brahman-Atma''n in Hindu iconography.<ref>Lindsay Jones (2005), ''Encyclopedia of religion'', Volume 13, Macmillan Reference, {{ISBN|978-0028657332}}, page 8894, Quote: "In Hindu iconography the swan personifies Brahman-Atman, the transcendent yet immanent ground of being, the Self."</ref><ref>Denise Cush (2007), Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415556231}}, page 697</ref>]] The central concern of all [[Upanishads]] is to discover the relations between ritual, cosmic realities (including gods), and the human body/person.{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|p=lii}}  The texts do not present a single unified theory, rather they present a variety of themes with multiple possible interpretations, which flowered in post-Vedic era as premises for the diverse schools of Hinduism.<ref name=sphilips/>

[[Paul Deussen]] states that the concept of ''Brahman'' in the Upanishads expands to [[metaphysics|metaphysical]], [[ontology|ontological]] and [[soteriology|soteriological]] themes, such as it being the "primordial reality that creates, maintains and withdraws within it the universe",<ref name=pauldeussen243>Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814677}}, pages 243, 325–344, 363, 581</ref> the "principle of the world",<ref name=pauldeussen243/> the "[[Absolute (philosophy)|absolute]]",<ref>Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814677}}, pages 358, 371</ref> the "general, universal",<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814677}}, pages 305, 476</ref> the "cosmic principle",<ref>Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814677}}, pages 110, 315–316, 495, 838–851</ref> the "ultimate that is the cause of everything including all gods",<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814677}}, pages 211, 741–742</ref> the "divine being, Lord, distinct God, or God within oneself",<ref>Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814677}}, pages 308–311, 497–499</ref> the "knowledge",<ref>Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814677}}, pages 181, 237, 444, 506–544, 570–571, 707, 847–850</ref> the "Self, sense of self of each human being that is fearless, luminuous, exalted and blissful",<ref name=pauldeussen52>Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814677}}, pages 52, 110, 425, 454, 585–586, 838–851</ref> the "essence of liberation, of spiritual freedom",<ref>Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814677}}, pages 173–174, 188–198, 308–317, 322–324, 367, 447, 496, 629–637, 658, 707–708</ref> the "universe within each living being and the universe outside",<ref name=pauldeussen52/> the "essence and everything innate in all that exists inside, outside and everywhere".<ref>Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814677}}, pages 600, 619–620, 647, 777</ref>

Gavin Flood summarizes the concept of ''Brahman'' in the Upanishads to be the "essence, the smallest particle of the cosmos and the infinite universe", the "essence of all things which cannot be seen, though it can be experienced", the "Self within each person, each being", the "truth", the "reality", the "absolute", the "bliss" (''ananda'').<ref name=gavinflood84/>

According to [[Radhakrishnan]], the sages of the [[Upanishads]] teach ''Brahman'' as the ultimate essence of material phenomena that cannot be seen or heard, but whose nature can be known through the development of self-knowledge (''[[Ātman (Hinduism)|atma jnana]]'').<ref>Radhakrishnan, S., ''The Principal Upanisads'', HarperCollins India, 1994, page 77</ref>

The Upanishads contain several ''mahā-vākyas'' or "Great Sayings"  on the concept of ''Brahman'':<ref name="EoH 270">{{cite book|last=Jones|first=Constance|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism|year=2007|publisher=Infobase Publishing|location=New York|isbn=978-0816073368|pages=270}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Text!! Upanishad  !! Translation !! Reference
|-
| '''अहं ब्रह्म अस्मि'''<br>''aham brahmāsmi'' || [[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]] 1.4.10  || "I am Brahman"||<ref>Sanskrit and English Translation: S. Madhavananda, [https://archive.org/stream/Brihadaranyaka.Upanishad.Shankara.Bhashya.by.Swami.Madhavananda#page/n171/mode/2up Brihadaranyaka Upanishad] 1.4.10, Brihadaranyaka Upanishad – Shankara Bhashya, page 145</ref>
|-
| '''अयम् आत्मा ब्रह्म'''<br>''ayam ātmā brahma'' || Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 4.4.5 || "The Self is Brahman" ||<ref>Sanskrit and English Translation: S. Madhavananda, [https://archive.org/stream/Brihadaranyaka.Upanishad.Shankara.Bhashya.by.Swami.Madhavananda#page/n737/mode/2up Brihadaranyaka Upanishad] 4.4.5, Brihadaranyaka Upanishad – Shankara Bhashya, pages 711–712</ref>
|-
| '''सर्वं खल्विदं ब्रह्म'''<br>''sarvam khalvidam brahma'' ||[[Chandogya Upanishad]] 3.14.1 || "All this is Brahman"||<ref>Sanskrit: [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/छान्दोग्योपनिषद्_२ छान्दोग्योपनिषद् १.१ ॥तृतीयॊऽध्यायः॥] Wikisource<br>English Translation:Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/48/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad 3.14.1] Oxford University Press, page 48;<br>Max Muller, {{Google books|KXf_AQAAQBAJ|The Upanisads}}, Routledge, pages xviii–xix</ref>
|-
| '''एकमेवाद्वितीयम्'''<br>''ekam evadvitiyam'' ||Chandogya Upanishad 6.2.1|| "That [Brahman] is one, without a second" ||<ref>Sanskrit: [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/छान्दोग्योपनिषद्_३ छान्दोग्योपनिषद् १.२ ॥षष्ठोऽध्यायः॥] Wikisource<br>English Translation:Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/92/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad 6.2.1] Oxford University Press, page 93;<br>Max Muller, {{Google books|KXf_AQAAQBAJ|The Upanisads}}, Routledge, pages xviii–xix</ref>
|-
| '''तत्त्वमसि'''<br>''[[tat tvam asi]]'' ||Chandogya Upanishad 6.8.7 et seq.  || "Thou art that" ("You are Brahman")||<ref>Sanskrit: [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/छान्दोग्योपनिषद्_३ छान्दोग्योपनिषद् १.२ ॥षष्ठोऽध्यायः॥] Wikisource<br>English Translation:Robert Hume, [https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n267/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad] 6.8, The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pages 246–250</ref><ref>A. S. Gupta, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1397392 The Meanings of "That Thou Art"], Philosophy East and West, Vol. 12, No. 2, pages 125–134</ref>
|-
| '''प्रज्ञानं ब्रह्म'''<br>''prajnānam brahma''||[[Aitareya Upanishad]] 3.3.7  || "Wisdom is Brahman"||<ref>Sanskrit: [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऐतरेयोपनिषद् ऐतरेयोपनिषद्] Wikisource<br>English Translation:Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/246/mode/2up Aitareya Upanishad 3.3.7, also known as Aitareya Aranyaka 2.6.1.7] Oxford University Press, page 246</ref>
|}

The Upanishad discuss the metaphysical concept of ''Brahman'' in many ways, such as the Śāṇḍilya doctrine in Chapter 3 of the Chandogya Upanishad, among of the oldest Upanishadic texts.<ref name=hume314/> The Śāṇḍilya doctrine on ''Brahman'' is not unique to Chandogya Upanishad, but found in other ancient texts such as the ''Satapatha Brahmana'' in section 10.6.3. It asserts that Atman (the inner essence, Self inside man) exists, the ''Brahman'' is identical with ''Atman'', that the ''Brahman'' is inside man—thematic quotations that are frequently cited by later schools of Hinduism and modern studies on Indian philosophies.<ref name=hume314/><ref name=gjha314>[https://archive.org/stream/Shankara.Bhashya-Chandogya.Upanishad-Ganganath.Jha.1942.English#page/n165/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad with Shankara Bhashya] Ganganath Jha (Translator), pages 150–157</ref><ref>For modern era cites:
* Anthony Warder (2009), ''A Course in Indian Philosophy'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120812444}}, pages 25–28;
* D. D. Meyer (2012), ''Consciousness, Theatre, Literature and the Arts'', Cambridge Scholars Publishing, {{ISBN|978-1443834919}}, page 250;
* Joel Brereton (1995), ''Eastern Canons: Approaches to the Asian Classics'' (Editors: William Theodore De Bary, Irene Bloom), Columbia University Press, {{ISBN|978-0231070058}}, page 130;
* S. Radhakrishnan (1914), "The Vedanta philosophy and the Doctrine of Maya", ''International Journal of Ethics'', Vol. 24, No. 4, pages 431–451</ref>

{{Blockquote|
This whole universe is ''Brahman''. In tranquility, let one worship It, as ''Tajjalan'' (that from which he came forth, as that into which he will be dissolved, as that in which he breathes).
|Chandogya Upanishad 3.14.1<ref name=hume314>Robert Hume, [https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n229/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad] 3.14.1 – 3.14.4, The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pages 209–210</ref><ref name=pauldeussen314>Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 110–111 with preface and footnotes</ref>}}
{{Blockquote|
Man is a creature of his ''Kratumaya'' (क्रतुमयः, will, purpose). Let him therefore have for himself this will, this purpose: The intelligent, whose body is imbued with life-principle, whose form is light, whose thoughts are driven by truth, whose self is like space (invisible but ever present), from whom all works, all desires, all sensory feelings encompassing this whole world, the silent, the unconcerned, this is me, my Self, my Soul within my heart.
|Chandogya Upanishad 3.14.1 – 3.14.3<ref name=hume314/><ref name=maxmuller314>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/48/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad 3.13.7], ''The Upanishads'', Part I, Oxford University Press, page 48 with footnotes</ref>}}
{{Blockquote|
This is my Soul in the innermost heart, greater than the earth, greater than the aerial space, greater than these worlds. This Soul, this Self of mine is that Brahman.
|Chandogya Upanishad 3.14.3 – 3.14.4<ref name=pauldeussen314/><ref name=maxmuller314/>}}

Paul Deussen notes that teachings similar to above on ''Brahman'', re-appeared centuries later in the words of the 3rd century CE [[Neoplatonism|Neoplatonic]] Roman philosopher [[Plotinus]] in Enneades 5.1.2.<ref name=pauldeussen314/>