Bethlehem

==History==
===Canaanite period===
The earliest reference to Bethlehem appears in the [[Amarna letters|Amarna correspondence]] ({{circa|1400&nbsp;BCE}}). In one of his six letters to Pharaoh, [[Abdi-Heba]], the Egyptian-appointed governor of Jerusalem, appeals for aid in retaking ''Bit-Laḫmi'' in the wake of disturbances by [[Habiru|Apiru]] mercenaries:<ref name="auto"/> "Now even a town near Jerusalem, Bit-Lahmi by name, a village which once belonged to the king, has fallen to the enemy... Let the king hear the words of your servant Abdi-Heba, and send archers to restore the imperial lands of the king!"

It is thought that the similarity of this name to its modern forms indicates that it was originally a settlement of Canaanites who shared a Semitic cultural and linguistic heritage with the later arrivals.<ref name="IDHP4">"''International Dictionary of Historic Places: Vol 4, Middle East and Africa''", Trudy Ring, K.A Berney, Robert M. Salkin, Sharon La Boda, Noelle Watson, Paul Schellinger, p. 133, Taylor & Francis, 1996, {{ISBN|978-1-884964-03-9}}.</ref> ''[[Lahmu|Laḫmu]]'' was the [[Mesopotamian mythology|Akkadian]] god of fertility,<ref>{{cite book |title=The Uttermost Part of the Earth: A Guide to Places in the Bible |publisher=Wm. A. Eerdmans |author=Losch, Richard R. |year=2005 |page=51}}</ref> worshipped by the [[Canaan#In Jewish and Christian scriptures|Canaanites]] as ''Leḥem''.{{Citation needed|date=December 2022}} Some time in the third millennium BCE, Canaanites erected a temple on the hill now known as the Hill of the Nativity, probably dedicated to [[Lahmu|Laḫmu]]. The temple, and subsequently the town that formed around it, was then known as ''Beit Lahama'', "House (Temple) of Lahmu". By [[1200s BC (decade)|1200 BC]], the area of Bethlehem, as well as much of the [[Palestine (region)|region]], was conquered by the [[Philistines]], which led the region to be known to the Greeks as "''Philistia''", later corrupted to "[[Palestine (region)|Palestine]]".<ref name="Loschp51">{{cite book|author=Losch, Richard R.|title=The uttermost part of the earth: a guide to places in the Bible|page=51|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing|year=2005|edition=Illustrated|isbn=978-0-8028-2805-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S5GJaakRvPgC&pg=PA51|access-date=October 14, 2020|archive-date=January 22, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122131920/https://books.google.com/books?id=S5GJaakRvPgC&pg=PA51|url-status=live}}</ref>

A burial ground discovered in spring 2013, and surveyed in 2015 by a joint Italian–Palestinian team found that the necropolis covered 3 hectares (more than 7 acres) and originally contained more than 100 tombs in use between roughly 2200 BCE and 650 BCE. The archaeologists were able to identify at least 30 tombs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.livescience.com/53939-ancient-burial-ground-found-near-bethlehem.html|title=Ancient Burial Ground with 100 Tombs Found Near Biblical Bethlehem|website=LiveScience.com|date=March 4, 2016|access-date=March 7, 2016|archive-date=March 7, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307164013/http://www.livescience.com/53939-ancient-burial-ground-found-near-bethlehem.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Israelite and Judean period===
Archaeological confirmation of Bethlehem as a city in the [[Kingdom of Judah]] was uncovered in 2012 at the archaeological dig at the [[City of David (historic)|City of David]] in the form of a ''[[Bulla (seal)|bulla]]'' (seal impression in dried clay) in [[Paleo-Hebrew alphabet|ancient Hebrew script]] that reads "From the town of Bethlehem to the King." According to the excavators, it was used to seal the string closing a shipment of grain, wine, or other goods sent as a tax payment in the 8th or 7th century BCE.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.antiquities.org.il/article_Item_eng.asp?sec_id=25&subj_id=240&id=1938&module_id=#as|title=Israel Antiquities Authority|website=antiquities.org.il|access-date=May 23, 2012|archive-date=May 27, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120527123200/http://www.antiquities.org.il/article_Item_eng.asp?sec_id=25&subj_id=240&id=1938&module_id=#as|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Schnorr_von_Carolsfeld_Bibel_in_Bildern_1860_106.png|thumb|David, pouring out water drawn from the well of Bethlehem in this 1860 woodcut by [[Julius Schnorr von Karolsfeld]], which illustrates [[s:Bible (King James)/2 Samuel#23:15|2 Samuel 23:15–17]]|left]]

[[Biblical studies|Biblical scholars]] believe Bethlehem, located in the "hill country" of [[Judea]], may be the same as the Biblical [[Ephrath]],<ref>{{bibleverse||Gen.|35:16}}, {{bibleverse||Gen.|48:7}}, {{bibleverse||Ruth|4:11}}</ref> which means "fertile", as there is a reference to it in the [[Book of Micah]] as Bethlehem Ephratah.<ref>{{bibleverse||Micah|5:2}}</ref> The [[Hebrew Bible]] also calls it Beth-Lehem [[Tribe of Judah|Judah]],<ref>{{bibleverse|1|Sam|17:12}}</ref> and the [[New Testament]] describes it as the "City of David".<ref name="qjukjz">{{bibleverse||Luke|2:4|KJV}}</ref> It is first mentioned in the Bible as the place where the matriarch [[Rachel]] died and was buried "by the wayside" ({{Bibleverse|Genesis|48:7}}). [[Rachel's Tomb]], the traditional grave site, stands at the entrance to Bethlehem. According to the [[Book of Ruth]], the valley to the east is where [[Ruth (biblical figure)|Ruth]] of [[Moab]] gleaned the fields and returned to town with [[Naomi (biblical figure)|Naomi]]. In the [[Books of Samuel]], Bethlehem is mentioned as the home of [[Jesse (biblical figure)|Jesse]],<ref>{{bibleverse||1Sam|16:1}}</ref> father of King [[David]] of [[Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)|Israel]], and the site of David's [[Anointing|anointment]] by the prophet [[Samuel]].<ref>{{bibleverse||1Sam|16:4–13}}</ref> It was from the well of Bethlehem that three of his warriors brought him water when he was hiding in the cave of [[Adullam]].<ref>{{bibleverse||2Sam|23:13–17}}</ref>

Writing in the 4th century, the [[Itinerarium Burdigalense|Pilgrim of Bordeaux]] reported that the sepulchers of David, [[Ezekiel]], [[Asaph (biblical figure)|Asaph]], [[Job (biblical figure)|Job]], [[Jesse (biblical figure)|Jesse]], and [[Solomon]] were located near Bethlehem.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.centuryone.com/bordeaux.html |title=The Bordeaux Pilgrim @ |publisher=Centuryone.com|access-date=August 17, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120224014259/http://www.centuryone.com/bordeaux.html |archive-date=February 24, 2012}}</ref> There has been no corroboration of this.{{According to whom|date=June 2019}}

===Classical period===
{{see also|Census of Quirinius}}

[[File:Gerard van Honthorst - Adoration of the Shepherds (1622).jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|''Adoration of the Shepherds'' (1622) by the Dutch painter [[Gerard van Honthorst]]. According to the [[Gospel of Matthew|Gospels of Matthew]] and [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]], [[Jesus]] was born in Bethlehem.<ref name="Brownrigg2002">{{cite book|last=Brownrigg|first=Ronald|title=Who's Who in the New Testament|chapter=Jesus: The Birth Stories|pages=121–123|publisher=Routledge|date=2002|orig-year=1971|location=New York City, New York and London, England|isbn=978-0-203-01712-8|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JXqBAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA123|access-date=October 14, 2020|archive-date=May 29, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210529123059/https://books.google.com/books?id=JXqBAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA123|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Sanders1993">{{cite book|last=Sanders|first=E. P.|author-link=E. P. Sanders|date=1993|title=The Historical Figure of Jesus|location=London, England, New York City, New York, Ringwood, Australia, Toronto, Ontario, and Auckland, New Zealand|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=978-0-14-014499-4|pages=85–88}}</ref><ref name="Casey2010">{{cite book|last=Casey|first=Maurice|author-link=Maurice Casey|title=Jesus of Nazareth: An Independent Historian's Account of His Life and Teaching|pages=145–158|publisher=T & T Clark|date=2010|location=New York City, New York and London, England|isbn=978-0-567-64517-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lXK0auknD0YC&pg=PA194|access-date=October 14, 2020|archive-date=May 29, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210529123059/https://books.google.com/books?id=lXK0auknD0YC&pg=PA194|url-status=live}}</ref>|left]]

The [[Gospel of Matthew]] Matthew 1:18–2:23<ref>{{bibleverse-nb|Matthew|1:18–2:23|9}}</ref> and the [[Gospel of Luke]] Luke 2:1–39<ref>{{bibleverse-nb|Luke|2:1–39|9}}</ref> represent [[Jesus]] as having been born in Bethlehem,<ref name="Brownrigg2002" /><ref name="Sanders1993" /><ref name="Casey2010" /> known at the time as [[wikt:בית לחמא|בית לחמא]] (Beit Lachma) in Aramaic, meaning "House of Bread". Modern scholars, however, regard the two accounts as contradictory<ref name="Sanders1993" /><ref name="Casey2010" /> and the [[Gospel of Mark]], the earliest gospel, mentions nothing about Jesus having been born in Bethlehem, saying only that he came from [[Nazareth]].<ref name="Casey2010" /> Current scholars are divided on the actual birthplace of Jesus: some believe he was actually born in Nazareth,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Brown|first=Raymond Edward|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dd1XAAAAYAAJ|title=The Birth of the Messiah: A Commentary on the Infancy Narratives in the Gospels of Matthew and Luke|date=1999|publisher=Doubleday|isbn=978-0-385-49447-2|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Meier|first=John P.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zODYAAAAMAAJ|title=A Marginal Jew: The roots of the problem and the person|date=1991|publisher=Doubleday|isbn=978-0-385-26425-9|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Ehrman|first=Bart D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pJjmCwAAQBAJ|title=Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium|date=1999|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-512474-3|language=en}}</ref> while others still hold that he was born in Bethlehem.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Murphy O'Connor|first=Jerome|date=2015-08-24|title=Bethlehem…Of Course|url=https://www.baslibrary.org/bible-review/16/1/14|url-status=live|access-date=2021-07-17|website=[[Biblical Archaeology Review]]|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200815030904/https://www.baslibrary.org/bible-review/16/1/14|archive-date=August 15, 2020}}</ref>

Nonetheless, the tradition that Jesus was born in Bethlehem was prominent in the early church.<ref name="Brownrigg2002" /> In around 155, the apologist [[Justin Martyr]] recommended that those who doubted Jesus was really born in Bethlehem could go there and visit the very cave where he was supposed to have been born.<ref name="Brownrigg2002" /> The same cave is also referenced by the apocryphal [[Gospel of James]] and the fourth-century church historian [[Eusebius]].<ref name="Brownrigg2002" /> After the [[Bar Kokhba revolt]] ({{circa}} 132–136 CE) was crushed, the Roman emperor [[Hadrian]] converted the Christian site above the Grotto into a shrine dedicated to the [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] god [[Adonis]], to honour his favourite, the Greek youth [[Antinous]].<ref name="Giuseppe Ricciotti 1948 p. 276">Giuseppe Ricciotti, ''Vita di Gesù Cristo,'' Tipografia Poliglotta Vaticana (1948) p. 276 n.</ref><ref>Maier, Paul L., "The First Christmas: The True and Unfamiliar Story." 2001</ref>

In around 395 CE, the [[Church Fathers|Church Father]] [[Jerome]] wrote in a letter: "Bethlehem... belonging now to us... was overshadowed by a grove of [[Dumuzid|Tammuz]], that is to say, [[Adonis]], and in the cave where once the infant Christ cried, the lover of [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]] was lamented."<ref name="Taylor1993">{{cite book|last=Taylor|first=Joan E.|title=Christians and the Holy Places: The Myth of Jewish-Christian Origins|pages=96–97|date=1993|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford, England|isbn=978-0-19-814785-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KWAXbCNxH6YC&pg=PA96|access-date=October 14, 2020|archive-date=May 29, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210529123100/https://books.google.com/books?id=KWAXbCNxH6YC&pg=PA96|url-status=live}}</ref> Many scholars have taken this letter as evidence that the cave of the nativity over which the [[Church of the Nativity]] was later built had at one point been a shrine to the ancient Near Eastern fertility god Tammuz.<ref name="Taylor1993" /><ref>Marcello Craveri, ''The Life of Jesus'', Grove Press (1967) pp. 35–36</ref> Eusebius, however, mentions nothing about the cave having been associated with Tammuz<ref name="Taylor1993" /> and there are no other Patristic sources that suggest Tammuz had a shrine in Bethlehem.<ref name="Taylor1993" /> Peter Welten has argued that the cave was never dedicated to Tammuz<ref name="Taylor1993" /> and that Jerome misinterpreted Christian mourning over the [[Massacre of the Innocents]] as a pagan ritual over Tammuz's death.<ref name="Taylor1993" /> Joan E. Taylor has countered this contention by arguing that Jerome, as an educated man, could not have been so naïve as to mistake Christian mourning over the Massacre of the Innocents as a pagan ritual for Tammuz.<ref name="Taylor1993" />

In 326–328, the empress [[Helena (empress)|Helena]], [[queen consort|consort]] of the emperor [[Constantius Chlorus]], and mother of the emperor [[Constantine the Great]], made a pilgrimage to Syra-Palaestina, in the course of which she visited the ruins of Bethlehem.<ref name="BMH" /><ref name="Brownrigg2002" /> The [[Church of the Nativity]] was built at her initiative over the cave where Jesus was purported to have been born.<ref name="Brownrigg2002" /> During the [[Samaritan Revolts|Samaritan revolt]] of 529, Bethlehem was sacked and its walls and the Church of the Nativity destroyed; they were rebuilt on the orders of the Emperor [[Justinian I]].<ref name="BMH" /><ref name="Brownrigg2002" /> In 614, the [[Sasanian Empire|Persian Sassanid Empire]], supported by [[Jewish revolt against Heraclius|Jewish rebels]], invaded [[Palaestina Prima|Palestina Prima]] and captured Bethlehem.{{sfn|Klein|2018|page=234}} A story recounted in later sources holds that they refrained from destroying the church on seeing the [[magi]] depicted in [[Persian art|Persian]] clothing in a mosaic.{{sfn|Russell|1991|pages=523–528}}<ref name="BMH" />

===Middle Ages===
[[File:1698 de Bruijin View of Bethlehem, Palestine (Israel, Holy Land) - Geographicus - Bethlehem-bruijn-1698.jpg|thumb|right|1698 sketch by [[Cornelis de Bruijn]]]]

In 637, shortly after [[Siege of Jerusalem (637)|Jerusalem was captured]] by the [[Rashidun army|Muslim armies]], [[Umar|'Umar ibn al-Khattāb]], the second [[Caliphate|Caliph]], promised that the Church of the Nativity would be preserved for Christian use.<ref name="BMH"/> A [[Mosque of Omar (Bethlehem)|mosque]] dedicated to Umar was built upon the place in the city where he prayed, next to the church.<ref name="ATT">{{cite web
|url=http://www.atlastours.net/holyland/mosque_of_omar.html
|title=Mosque of Omar, Bethlehem
|publisher=Atlas Travel and Tourist Agency
|access-date=January 22, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130729223029/http://www.atlastours.net/holyland/mosque_of_omar.html
|archive-date=July 29, 2013
}}</ref> Bethlehem then passed through the control of the Islamic caliphates of the [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyads]] in the 8th century, then the [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasids]] in the 9th century. A [[Persian people|Persian]] geographer recorded in the mid-9th century that a well preserved and much venerated church existed in the town. In 985, the [[Arabs|Arab]] geographer [[al-Muqaddasi]] visited Bethlehem, and referred to its church as the "Basilica of Constantine, the equal of which does not exist anywhere in the country-round."<ref>le Strange, 1890, pp. [https://archive.org/stream/palestineundermo00lestuoft#page/298/mode/1up 298]–300.</ref> In 1009, during the reign of the sixth Fatimid Caliph, [[al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah]], the Church of the Nativity was ordered to be demolished, but was spared by local Muslims, because they had been permitted to worship in the structure's southern transept.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.sacred-destinations.com/israel/bethlehem-church-of-the-nativity
|title=Church of the Nativity – Bethlehem
|location=Bethlehem, West Bank, Israel
|publisher=Sacred-destinations.com
|access-date=October 29, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140216143054/http://www.sacred-destinations.com/israel/bethlehem-church-of-the-nativity|archive-date=February 16, 2014}}</ref>

In 1099, Bethlehem was captured by the [[First Crusade|Crusaders]], who fortified it and built a new monastery and cloister on the north side of the Church of the Nativity. The [[Greek Orthodox Church|Greek Orthodox]] clergy were removed from their [[Episcopal see|sees]] and replaced with [[Catholic Church|Latin]] clerics. Up until that point the official Christian presence in the region was Greek Orthodox. On Christmas Day 1100, [[Baldwin I of Jerusalem|Baldwin I]], first king of the Frankish [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]], was crowned in Bethlehem, and that year a Latin episcopate was also established in the town.<ref name="BMH"/>

In 1187, [[Saladin]], the Sultan of [[Egypt]] and [[Syria]] who led the [[Ayyubid dynasty|Muslim Ayyubids]], captured Bethlehem from the Crusaders. The Latin clerics were forced to leave, allowing the Greek Orthodox clergy to return. Saladin agreed to the return of two Latin priests and two deacons in 1192. However, Bethlehem suffered from the loss of the pilgrim trade, as there was a sharp decrease of European pilgrims.<ref name="BMH"/> [[William IV, Count of Nevers]] had promised the Christian bishops of Bethlehem that if Bethlehem should fall under Muslim control, he would welcome them in the small town of [[Clamecy, Nièvre|Clamecy]] in present-day [[Burgundy]], France. As a result, the Bishop of Bethlehem duly took up residence in the hospital of Panthenor, Clamecy, in 1223. Clamecy remained the continuous '[[Titular see|in partibus infidelium]]' seat of the Bishopric of Bethlehem for almost 600 years, until the [[French Revolution]] in 1789.<ref>de Sivry, L: "Dictionnaire de Géographie Ecclésiastique", p. 375., 1852 ed, from ecclesiastical record of letters between the Bishops of Bethlehem 'in partibus' to the bishops of Auxerre.</ref>

Bethlehem, along with Jerusalem, [[Nazareth]], and [[Sidon]], was briefly ceded to the Crusader [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]] by a treaty between [[Holy Roman Empire|Holy Roman Emperor]] [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]] and Ayyubid Sultan [[al-Kamil]] in 1229, in return for a ten-year truce between the Ayyubids and the Crusaders. The treaty expired in 1239, and Bethlehem was recaptured by the Muslims in 1244.<ref>Paul Reed, 2000, p. 206.</ref> In 1250, with the coming to power of the [[Mamluk]]s under [[Baibars|Rukn al-Din Baibars]], tolerance of Christianity declined. Members of the clergy left the city, and in 1263 the town walls were demolished. The Latin clergy returned to Bethlehem the following century, establishing themselves in the monastery adjoining the Basilica of the Nativity. The Greek Orthodox were given control of the basilica and shared control of the Milk Grotto with the Latins and the [[Armenian Apostolic Church|Armenians]].<ref name="BMH"/>

===Ottoman era===
[[File:Bethlehem Polenov.jpg|thumb|right|A painting of Bethlehem by [[Vasily Polenov]], 1882]]
[[File:Bethlehem 1898.jpg|thumb|View of Bethlehem, Christmas Day 1898|left]]

From 1517, during the years of [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] control, custody of the Basilica was bitterly disputed between the Catholic and Greek [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox churches]].<ref name="BMH"/> By the end of the 16th century, Bethlehem had become one of the largest villages in the District of Jerusalem, and was subdivided into seven quarters.<ref name="Singer"/> The Basbus family served as the heads of Bethlehem among other leaders during this period.<ref>Singer, 1994, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=mrsAw_mk1d0C&pg=PA33 33] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151231205315/https://books.google.com/books?id=mrsAw_mk1d0C&pg=PA33 |date=December 31, 2015 }}</ref> The Ottoman tax record and census from 1596 indicates that Bethlehem had a population of 1,435, making it the 13th largest village in Palestine at the time. Its total revenue amounted to 30,000 [[Akçe|akce]].<ref name="Petersen141">Petersen, 2005, p. 141.</ref>

Bethlehem paid taxes on wheat, barley and grapes. The Muslims and Christians were organized into separate communities, each having its own leader. Five leaders represented the village in the mid-16th century, three of whom were Muslims. Ottoman tax records suggest that the Christian population was slightly more prosperous or grew more grain than grapes (the former being a more valuable commodity).<ref>Singer, 1994, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=mrsAw_mk1d0C&pg=PA84 84] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151231205315/https://books.google.com/books?id=mrsAw_mk1d0C&pg=PA84 |date=December 31, 2015 }}</ref>

From 1831 to 1841, Palestine was under the rule of the [[Muhammad Ali dynasty|Muhammad Ali Dynasty]] of [[Egypt]]. During this period, the town suffered [[Galilee earthquake of 1837|an earthquake]] as well as the destruction of the Muslim quarter in 1834 by Egyptian troops, apparently as a reprisal for the murder of a favored loyalist of [[Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt|Ibrahim Pasha]], during the [[Peasants' revolt in Palestine]].<ref>Thomson, 1860, p. 647.</ref> In 1841, Bethlehem came under Ottoman rule once again and remained so until the end of World War I. Under the Ottomans, Bethlehem's inhabitants faced unemployment, [[Conscription|compulsory military service]], and heavy taxes, resulting in mass emigration, particularly to [[South America]].<ref name="BMH"/> An American missionary in the 1850s reported a population of under 4,000, nearly all of whom belonged to the Greek Church. He also noted that a lack of water limited the town's growth.<ref>W. M. Thomson, p. 647.</ref>

[[Albert Socin|Socin]] found from an official Ottoman village list from about 1870 that Bethlehem had a population of 179 Muslims in 59 houses, 979 "Latins" in 256 houses, 824 "Greeks" in 213 houses, and 41 Armenians in 11 houses, a total of 539 houses. The population count only included men.<ref>Socin, 1879, p. [https://archive.org/stream/zeitschriftdesde01deut#page/146/mode/1up 146]</ref> [[Martin Hartmann|Hartmann]] found that Bethlehem had 520 houses.<ref>Hartmann, 1883, p. [https://archive.org/stream/bub_gb_BZobAQAAIAAJ#page/n932/mode/1up 124]</ref>

===Modern era===
[[File:AN AERIAL PHOTO OF THE CITY BETHLEHEM. צילום אויר של העיר בית לחם.D332-057.jpg|thumb|Bethlehem 1937]]
[[File:2018 OCHA OpT map Bethlehem.jpg|thumb|left|2018 [[United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs|United Nations]] map of the area, showing the [[Israeli occupation of the West Bank|Israeli occupation]] arrangements.]]
[[File:Palestine stamp.jpg|thumb|1927 stamp from the [[Mandatory Palestine]] period, showcasing [[Rachel's Tomb]] (or Bilal bin Rabah Mosque) in Bethlehem]]
Bethlehem was part of [[Mandatory Palestine]] from 1920 to 1948.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/63429/Bethlehem Bethlehem]. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131014172813/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/63429/Bethlehem |date=October 14, 2013}}</ref> In the [[United Nations General Assembly]]'s [[United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine|1947 resolution to partition Palestine]], Bethlehem was included in the [[Corpus separatum (Jerusalem)|international enclave of Jerusalem]] to be administered by the [[United Nations]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://imeu.net/news/article00125.shtml|title=IMEU: Maps: 2.7 – Jerusalem and the Corpus Separatum proposed in 1947
|access-date=January 22, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130729204009/http://imeu.net/news/article00125.shtml|archive-date=July 29, 2013}}</ref> [[Jordan]] captured the city during the [[1948 Arab–Israeli War]].<ref>[http://www.insideout.org/documentaries/jerusalem/land/timeline2.html A Jerusalem Timeline, 3,000 Years of The City's History] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090109171903/http://www.insideout.org/documentaries/jerusalem/land/timeline2.html |date=January 9, 2009}} (2001–02) [[NPR|National Public Radio]] and [[BBC News]].</ref> Many refugees from areas captured by [[Israel]]i forces in 1947–48 fled to the Bethlehem area, primarily settling in what became the official refugee camps of [['Azza]] (Beit Jibrin) and [[Aida Camp|'Aida]] in the north and [[Dheisheh]] in the south.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bethlehem.ps/about/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071113114509/http://www.bethlehem.ps/about/ |archive-date=November 13, 2007 |title=About Bethlehem |url-status=dead |access-date=June 1, 2016}} The Centre for [[Cultural heritage|Cultural Heritage]] Preservation via Bethlehem.ps.</ref> The influx of refugees significantly transformed Bethlehem's Christian majority into a Muslim one.<ref>[http://www.bethlehem.ps/facts/population.php Population in the Bethlehem District]{{dead link|date=March 2016}} Bethlehem.ps. {{dead link|date=May 2014}}</ref>

Jordan retained control of the city until the [[Six-Day War]] in 1967, when Bethlehem was captured by Israel, along with the rest of the [[West Bank]]. Following the Six-Day War, Israel took control of the city.

[[File:Die Mauer von Bethlehem.jpg|thumb|[[Israeli West Bank barrier]] in Bethlehem in 2012|left]]

During the early months of [[First Intifada]], on 5 May 1989, Milad Anton Shahin, aged 12, was shot dead by [[Israeli army|Israeli soldiers]]. Replying to a Member of [[Knesset]] in August 1990 Defence Minister [[Yitzak Rabin]] stated that a group of reservists in an observation post had come under attack by stone throwers. The commander of the post, a senior non-commissioned officer, fired two [[plastic bullets]] in deviation of operational rules. No evidence was found that this caused the boy's death. The officer was found guilty of illegal use of a weapon and sentenced to 5 months imprisonment, two of them actually in prison doing public service. He was also demoted.<ref>Talmor, Ronny (translated by Ralph Mandel) (1990) ''The Use of Firearms - By the Security Forces in the Occupied Territories''. [[B'Tselem]]. [https://www.btselem.org/sites/default/files2/publication/199007_use_of_firearms_eng.doc download] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140914221355/http://www.btselem.org/sites/default/files2/publication/199007_use_of_firearms_eng.doc |date=September 14, 2014}} p. 75 MK [[Yair Tsaban]] to defence ministers [[Yitzhak Rabin]] & [[Yitzhak Shamir]] p.81 Rabin's reply</ref>

On December 21, 1995, Israeli troops withdrew from Bethlehem,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.passia.org/palestine_facts/chronology/19941995.htm|title=Palestine Facts Timeline: 1994–1995 |publisher=[[Palestinian Academic Society for the Study of International Affairs]]|access-date=March 29, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130729174648/http://www.passia.org/palestine_facts/chronology/19941995.htm|archive-date=July 29, 2013}}</ref> and three days later the city came under the administration and military control of the [[Palestinian National Authority]] in accordance with the [[Oslo II Accord|Interim Agreement on the West Bank and the Gaza Strip]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/EVENTS/seasons_greetings/bethlehem_celebration/|title=Muslims, Christians celebrate in Bethlehem|first=Jerrold|last=Kessel |publisher=[[CNN]] |date=December 24, 1995|access-date=January 22, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130731210658/http://www.cnn.com/EVENTS/seasons_greetings/bethlehem_celebration/ |archive-date=July 31, 2013}}</ref> When the Palestinian Authority assumed control in 1995, it publicly extended the boundaries of Bethlehem, allegedly to secure a Muslim majority.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news |last1=Klein |first1=Aaron |last2=Daily |first2=World Net |date=2005-12-27 |title='Muslims persecuting Bethlehem's Christians' |language=en |work=Ynetnews |url=https://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3190798,00.html |access-date=2023-12-07}}</ref> This expansion incorporated over 30,000 Muslims from nearby refugee camps into the city.<ref name=":2" /> Yasser Arafat, then the leader of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), unilaterally replaced the predominantly Christian city council with a leadership that was largely Muslim.<ref name=":2" /> During the [[Second Intifada|Second Palestinian Intifada]] in 2000–2005, Bethlehem's infrastructure and [[tourism]] industry were damaged.<ref name="OCHA">{{cite web|title=Costs of Conflict: The Changing Face of Bethlehem |publisher=United Nations |author=Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) & Office of the Special Coordinator for the Peace Process in the Middle East |date=December 2004 |url=http://www.miftah.org/Doc/Reports/2004/Beth_Rep_Dec04_En.pdf |access-date=July 22, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130729131103/http://www.miftah.org/Doc/Reports/2004/Beth_Rep_Dec04_En.pdf |archive-date=July 29, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7146980.stm |title=Better times return to Bethlehem |agency=[[BBC News]] |date=December 22, 2007 |access-date=January 22, 2008|first=Martin |last=Patience|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140106191329/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7146980.stm |archive-date=January 6, 2014}}</ref> In 2002, it was a primary combat zone in [[Operation Defensive Shield]], a major military counteroffensive by the [[Israel Defense Forces|Israeli Defense Forces]] (IDF).<ref name="BBC">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/1916580.stm |title=Vatican outrage over church siege |agency=[[BBC News]] |date=April 8, 2002 |access-date=March 29, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140109192256/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/1916580.stm|archive-date=January 9, 2014}}</ref> The IDF [[Siege of the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem|besieged the Church of the Nativity]], where dozens of Palestinian militants had sought refuge. The siege lasted 39 days. Several militants were killed. It ended with an agreement to exile 13 of the militants to foreign countries.<ref name="siege timeline">{{cite news|title=Chronology of the Siege |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/siege/etc/cron.html |publisher=PBS |work=Frontline |access-date=December 26, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131227111530/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/siege/etc/cron.html|archive-date=December 27, 2013}}</ref>

Today, the city is surrounded by two bypass roads for [[Israeli settlement|Israeli settlers]], leaving the inhabitants squeezed between thirty-seven Jewish enclaves, where a quarter of all West Bank settlers, roughly 170,000, live; the gap between the two roads is closed by the 8-metre high [[Israeli West Bank barrier]], which cuts Bethlehem off from its sister city Jerusalem.<ref>Nicholas Blincoe, [http://www.lrb.co.uk/2014/08/14/nicholas-blincoe/phantom-bids 'Phantom Bids,'] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180109181210/https://www.lrb.co.uk/2014/08/14/nicholas-blincoe/phantom-bids |date=January 9, 2018}} ''[[London Review of Books]]'', August 14, 2014</ref> In 2002 the Church of Nativity was broken into by 200 militiamen who held priests and nuns hostages and plundered the church's coffers, it was subsequently sieged by Israeli forces until a deal was reached.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Vatican and the Standoff at the Church of the Nativity - Sergio Minerbi |url=https://www.jcpa.org/jl/vp515.htm |access-date=2023-12-07 |website=www.jcpa.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2012-04-01 |title=This Week in History: Church of the Nativity siege |url=https://www.jpost.com/features/in-thespotlight/this-week-in-history-church-of-the-nativity-siege |access-date=2023-12-07 |website=The Jerusalem Post {{!}} JPost.com |language=en-US}}</ref>[[File:The walled off hotel outlook.jpg|thumb|upright|[[The Walled Off Hotel]], owned and decorated by [[Banksy]]]]Christian families that have lived in Bethlehem for hundreds of years are being forced to leave as land in Bethlehem is seized, and homes bulldozed, for construction of thousands of new Israeli homes.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|title=Settlements choke peace in the little town of Bethlehem|last=Philp|first=Catherine|date=December 24, 2013|work=[[The Times]]|pages=28–29}}</ref> Land seizures for Israeli settlements have also prevented construction of a new hospital for the inhabitants of Bethlehem, as well as the barrier separating dozens of Palestinian families from their farmland and Christian communities from their places of worship.<ref name=":0" /> Christians have reportedly suffered persecution under the Palestinian Authority, leading to emigration.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":5">{{Cite web |last=CNEWA |date=2002-01-23 |title=Christian Emigration Report: Palestine |url=https://cnewa.org/christian-emigration-report-palestine/ |access-date=2023-12-07 |website=CNEWA |language=en-US |quote=Selected accounts of Christians expressing feelings of intimidation/persecution due to rise in Muslim extremism: Muslims refusing to hire Christian workers or to sell property to Christians Christian women describe increasing harassment from Muslim men.}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite news |last=Meotti |first=Giulio |date=2012-04-28 |title=Bethlehem's last Christians? |language=en |work=Ynetnews |url=https://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4221651,00.html |access-date=2023-12-07}}</ref> According to [[International Christian Concern]], there are reports of Christians suffering sexual harassments, kidnappings, forced marriages, extortion and murder of converts by Muslims and PA officials.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |last=admin |date=2008-09-15 |title=Muslims Continue Pushing Christians Out of Bethlehem |url=https://www.persecution.org/2008/09/15/muslims-continue-pushing-christians-out-of-bethlehem/ |access-date=2023-12-07 |website=International Christian Concern |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=Palestinian Crimes against Christian Arabs and Their Manipulation against Israel |url=https://jcpa.org/article/palestinian-crimes-against-christian-arabs-and-their-manipulation-against-israel/ |access-date=2023-12-07 |website=Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref>