Anthropology

==Origin and development of the term==
{{main|History of anthropology}}
[[File:Bernardino de Sahagún (2).jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Bernardino de Sahagún]] is considered to be the founder of modern anthropology.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1353/cat.2003.0100| title=Bernardino de Sahagun: First Anthropologist (review)| journal=The Catholic Historical Review| volume=89| issue=2| pages=351–352| year=2003| last1=Burkhart| first1=Louise M.| s2cid=162350550}}</ref>]]

===Through the 19th century===
In 1647, the [[Caspar Bartholin the Elder|Bartholins]], early scholars of the [[University of Copenhagen]], defined ''{{lang|fr|l'anthropologie}}'' as follows:<ref name="frenchy">{{cite book | last1=Bartholin | first1=Caspar | last2=Bartholin | first2=Thomas | author-link1=Caspar Bartholin the Younger | author-link2=Thomas Bartholin | others=Translated from the Latin by Abr. Du Prat | year=1647 | title=Institutions anatomiques de Gaspar Bartholin, augmentées et enrichies pour la seconde fois tant des opinions et observations nouvelles des modernes | location=Paris | publisher=M. Hénault et J. Hénault | chapter=Preface }}</ref>

{{Blockquote|Anthropology, that is to say the science that treats of man, is divided ordinarily and with reason into Anatomy, which considers the body and the parts, and Psychology, which speaks of the soul.{{refn|group=n|In French: ''L'Anthropologie, c'est à dire la science qui traite de l'homme, est divisée ordinairment & avec raison en l'Anatomie, qui considere le corps & les parties, et en la Psychologie, qui parle de l'Ame''.<ref name=frenchy/>}}}}

Sporadic use of the term for some of the subject matter occurred subsequently, such as the use by [[Étienne Serres]] in 1839 to describe the natural history, or paleontology, of man, based on comparative anatomy, and the creation of a chair in anthropology and ethnography in 1850 at the [[National Museum of Natural History, France|French National Museum of Natural History]] by [[Jean Louis Armand de Quatrefages de Bréau]]. Various short-lived organizations of anthropologists had already been formed. The [[Société Ethnologique de Paris]], the first to use the term ''[[ethnology]]'', was formed in 1839 and focused on methodically studying human races. After the death of its founder, [[William Frédéric Edwards]], in 1842, it gradually declined in activity until it eventually dissolved in 1862.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sibeud |first=Emmanuelle |title=A New History of Anthropology |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |year=2008 |isbn=9780470766217 |editor-last=Kuklick |editor-first=Henrika |page=98 |chapter=The Metamorphosis of Ethnology in France, 1839–1930 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/newhistoryofanth0000unse/page/98}}</ref>

Meanwhile, the Ethnological Society of New York, currently the [[American Ethnological Society]], was founded on its model in 1842, as well as the [[Ethnological Society of London]] in 1843, a break-away group of the [[Aborigines' Protection Society]].<ref name="Schiller131">{{harvnb|Schiller|1979|pp=130–132}}</ref> These anthropologists of the times were liberal, anti-slavery, and pro-[[Human rights|human-rights activists.]] They maintained international connections.{{citation needed|date=September 2021}}

Anthropology and many other current fields are the intellectual results of the comparative methods developed in the earlier 19th century. Theorists in diverse fields such as [[Comparative anatomy|anatomy]], [[Comparative method (linguistics)|linguistics]], and [[ethnology]], started making feature-by-feature comparisons of their subject matters, and were beginning to suspect that similarities between animals, languages, and folkways were the result of processes or laws unknown to them then.<ref>{{harvnb|Schiller|1979|p=221}}</ref> For them, the publication of [[Charles Darwin]]'s ''[[On the Origin of Species]]'' was the epiphany of everything they had begun to suspect. Darwin himself arrived at his conclusions through comparison of species he had seen in [[agronomy]] and in the wild.

Darwin and Wallace unveiled evolution in the late 1850s. There was an immediate rush to bring it into the social sciences. [[Paul Broca]] in Paris was in the process of breaking away from the [[Société de biologie]] to form the first of the explicitly anthropological societies, the [[Society of Anthropology of Paris|Société d'Anthropologie de Paris]], meeting for the first time in Paris in 1859.<ref name="Fletcher">{{cite book | first=Robert | last=Fletcher | chapter=Paul Broca and the French School of Anthropology | title=The Saturday Lectures, Delivered in the Lecture-room of the U. S. National Museum under the Auspices of the Anthropological and Biological Societies of Washington in March and April 1882 | year=1882 | location=Boston; Washington, DC | publisher=D. Lothrop & Co.; Judd & Detweiler | chapter-url={{Google books|9dEJAQAAIAAJ|plainurl=yes}}}}</ref>{{refn|group=n|As [[Robert Fletcher (anthropologist)|Fletcher]] points out, the French society was by no means the first to include anthropology or parts of it as its topic. Previous organizations used other names. The German Anthropological Association of St. Petersburg, however, met first in 1861, but due to the death of its founder never met again.<ref name=Fletcher/>}} When he read Darwin, he became an immediate convert to ''Transformisme'', as the French called [[evolutionism]].<ref>{{harvnb|Schiller|1979|p=143}}</ref> His definition now became "the study of the human group, considered as a whole, in its details, and in relation to the rest of nature".<ref>{{harvnb|Schiller|1979|p=136}}</ref>

Broca, being what today would be called a [[Neurosurgery|neurosurgeon]], had taken an interest in the pathology of speech. He wanted to localize the difference between man and the other animals, which appeared to reside in speech. He discovered the speech center of the human brain, today called [[Broca's area]] after him. His interest was mainly in [[Biological anthropology]], but a German philosopher specializing in psychology, [[Theodor Waitz]], took up the theme of general and social anthropology in his six-volume work, entitled ''Die Anthropologie der Naturvölker'', 1859–1864. The title was soon translated as "The Anthropology of Primitive Peoples". The last two volumes were published posthumously.

Waitz defined anthropology as "the science of the nature of man". Following Broca's lead, Waitz points out that anthropology is a new field, which would gather material from other fields, but would differ from them in the use of comparative anatomy, physiology, and psychology to differentiate man from "the animals nearest to him". He stresses that the data of comparison must be empirical, gathered by experimentation.<ref>{{harvnb|Waitz|1863|p=5}}</ref> The history of civilization, as well as ethnology, are to be brought into the comparison. It is to be presumed fundamentally that the species, man, is a unity, and that "the same laws of thought are applicable to all men".<ref>{{harvnb|Waitz|1863|pp=11–12}}</ref>

Waitz was influential among British ethnologists. In 1863, the explorer [[Richard Francis Burton]] and the speech therapist [[James Hunt (speech therapist)|James Hunt]] broke away from the [[Ethnological Society of London]] to form the [[Anthropological Society of London]], which henceforward would follow the path of the new anthropology rather than just ethnology. It was the 2nd society dedicated to general anthropology in existence. Representatives from the French ''Société'' were present, though not Broca. In his keynote address, printed in the first volume of its new publication, ''The Anthropological Review'', Hunt stressed the work of Waitz, adopting his definitions as a standard.<ref name="hunt">{{harvnb|Hunt|1863|loc=Introductory Address}}</ref>{{refn|group=n|Hunt's choice of theorists does not exclude the numerous other theorists that were beginning to publish a large volume of anthropological studies.<ref name=hunt/>}} Among the first associates were the young [[Edward Burnett Tylor]], inventor of [[cultural anthropology]], and his brother [[Alfred Tylor]], a geologist. Previously Edward had referred to himself as an ethnologist; subsequently, an anthropologist.

Similar organizations in other countries followed: The Anthropological Society of Madrid (1865), the [[American Anthropological Association]] in 1902, the Anthropological Society of Vienna (1870), the Italian Society of Anthropology and Ethnology (1871), and many others subsequently. The majority of these were evolutionists. One notable exception was the [[Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte|Berlin Society for Anthropology, Ethnology, and Prehistory]] (1869) founded by [[Rudolph Virchow]], known for his vituperative attacks on the evolutionists. Not religious himself, he insisted that Darwin's conclusions lacked empirical foundation.

During the last three decades of the 19th century, a proliferation of anthropological societies and associations occurred, most independent, most publishing their own journals, and all international in membership and association. The major theorists belonged to these organizations. They supported the gradual osmosis of anthropology curricula into the major institutions of higher learning. By 1898, 48 educational institutions in 13 countries had some curriculum in anthropology. None of the 75 faculty members were under a department named anthropology.<ref>{{cite journal | title=Extent of Instruction in Anthropology in Europe and the United States | first=George Grant | last=Maccurdy | journal=Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science | volume=10 | issue=260 | year=1899 | pages=382–390 | url={{Google books|PA385|plainurl=yes}} | bibcode=1899Sci....10..910M | doi=10.1126/science.10.260.910 | pmid=17837336 }}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

===20th and 21st centuries===
Anthropology as a specialized field of academic study developed much through the end of the 19th century. Then it rapidly expanded beginning in the early 20th century to the point where many of the world's higher educational institutions typically included anthropology departments. Thousands of anthropology departments have come into existence, and anthropology has also diversified from a few major subdivisions to dozens more. Practical anthropology, the use of anthropological knowledge and technique to solve specific problems, has arrived; for example, the presence of buried victims might stimulate the use of a forensic archaeologist to recreate the final scene. The organization has also reached a global level. For example, the World Council of Anthropological Associations (WCAA), "a network of national, regional and international associations that aims to promote worldwide communication and cooperation in anthropology", currently contains members from about three dozen nations.<ref>{{cite web | title=Home | publisher=World Council of Anthropological Associations | access-date=29 March 2015 | url=http://www.wcaanet.org/index.shtml | archive-date=2 April 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402172343/http://www.wcaanet.org/index.shtml | url-status=live }}</ref>

Since the work of [[Franz Boas]] and [[Bronisław Malinowski]] in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, ''social'' anthropology in Great Britain and [[cultural anthropology|''cultural'' anthropology]] in the US have been distinguished from other social sciences by their emphasis on [[cross-cultural studies|cross-cultural comparisons]], long-term in-depth examination of context, and the importance they place on [[Participant observation|participant-observation]] or experiential immersion in the area of research. Cultural anthropology, in particular, has emphasized [[cultural relativism]], [[holism]], and the use of findings to frame cultural critiques.<ref name="Hylland Eriksen 2004 p. 79">Hylland Eriksen, Thomas. (2004) "What is Anthropology" Pluto. London. p. 79. {{ISBN|0-7453-2320-0}}.</ref> This has been particularly prominent in the United States, from [[Boasian anthropology|Boas' arguments]] against 19th-century racial [[ideology]], through [[Margaret Mead]]'s advocacy for [[gender equality]] and sexual liberation, to current criticisms of [[post-colonialism|post-colonial]] oppression and promotion of [[multiculturalism]]. [[Ethnography]] is one of its primary [[research design]]s as well as the text that is generated from anthropological fieldwork.<ref name="Ingold1994p331"/><ref name="Spiro1987">On varieties of cultural relativism in anthropology, see Spiro, Melford E. (1987) "Some Reflections on Cultural Determinism and Relativism with Special Reference to Emotion and Reason," in ''Culture and Human Nature: Theoretical Papers of Melford E. Spiro''. Edited by B. Kilborne and L.L. Langness, pp.&nbsp;32–58. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.</ref><ref name="Heyck1997">{{cite journal|last1=Heyck|first1=Thomas William|last2=Stocking|first2=George W.|last3=Goody|first3=Jack|title=After Tylor: British Social Anthropology 1888–1951.|journal=The American Historical Review|volume=102|issue=5|year=1997|pages=1486–1488|issn=0002-8762|doi=10.2307/2171126|jstor=2171126}}</ref>

In Great Britain and the Commonwealth countries, the British tradition of [[social anthropology]] tends to dominate. In the United States, anthropology has traditionally been divided into the [[four field approach]] developed by Franz Boas in the early 20th century: [[Biological anthropology|''biological'' or ''physical'' anthropology]]; [[social anthropology|''social'']], [[cultural anthropology|''cultural'']], or [[sociocultural anthropology|''sociocultural'' anthropology]]; [[archaeology|archaeological anthropology]]; and [[linguistic anthropology]]. These fields frequently overlap but tend to use different methodologies and techniques.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://americananthro.org/learn-teach/what-is-anthropology/ | title=What is Anthropology? }}</ref>

European countries with overseas colonies tended to practice more [[ethnology]] (a term coined and defined by [[Adam František Kollár|Adam F. Kollár]] in 1783). It is sometimes referred to as sociocultural anthropology in the parts of the world that were influenced by the European tradition.<ref>Layton, Robert (1998) ''An Introduction to Theory in Anthropology''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref>
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