Amsterdam

===Prehistory===
Due to its geographical location in what used to be wet [[Mire|peatland]], the founding of Amsterdam is later than other [[History of urban centers in the Low Countries|urban centres in the Low Countries]]. However, around the area of what later became Amsterdam, farmers settled as early as three millennia ago. They lived along the prehistoric [[IJ (Amsterdam)|IJ]] river and upstream of its [[tributary]] Amstel. The prehistoric IJ was a shallow and quiet stream in peatland behind [[beach ridge]]s. This secluded area was able to grow into an important local settlement centre, especially in the late [[Bronze Age Europe|Bronze Age]], the [[Iron Age Europe|Iron Age]] and the [[Roman Empire|Roman Age]]. [[Neolithic]] and Roman artefacts have also been found in the prehistoric [[Amstel]] bedding under Amsterdam's [[Damrak]] and [[Rokin]], such as shards of [[Bell Beaker culture]] [[pottery]] (2200-2000 BC) and a granite grinding stone (2700-2750 BC),<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gawronski |first=J |date=2017 |title=Ontstaan uit een storm; De vroegste geschiedenis van Amsterdam archeologisch en landschappelijk belicht |trans-title=Born from a storm; The earliest history of Amsterdam from an archaeological and landscape perspective. |url=https://www.theobakker.net/pdf/TX_Gawronski2017JbAmstelodamum_10.pdf |journal=Jaarboek van het Genootschap Amstelodamum |language=Dutch |location=Amsterdam |publisher=University of Amsterdam |volume=109 |access-date=5 January 2021}}, pp. 69–71.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Below the Surface - Archeologische vondsten Noord/Zuidlijn Amsterdam |url=https://belowthesurface.amsterdam/en/vondsten|access-date=25 February 2021 |website=belowthesurface.amsterdam}}</ref> but the location of these artefacts around the river banks of the Amstel probably point to a presence of a modest semi-permanent or seasonal settlement. Until water issues were controlled, a permanent settlement would not have been possible, since the river mouth and the banks of the Amstel in this period in time were too wet for permanent habitation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gawronski |first=J |date=2017 |title=Ontstaan uit een storm; De vroegste geschiedenis van Amsterdam archeologisch en landschappelijk belicht |trans-title=Born from a storm; The earliest history of Amsterdam from an archaeological and landscape perspective. |url=https://www.theobakker.net/pdf/TX_Gawronski2017JbAmstelodamum_10.pdf |journal=Jaarboek van het Genootschap Amstelodamum |language=Dutch |location=Amsterdam |publisher=University of Amsterdam |volume=109 |access-date=5 January 2021}}, pp. 62–63.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kranendonk |first1=P. |last2=Kluiving |first2=S. J. |last3=Troelstra |first3=S. R. |title=Chrono- and archaeostratigraphy and development of the River Amstel: results of the North/South underground line excavations, Amsterdam, the Netherlands<!--sic-->|journal=Netherlands Journal of Geosciences |date=December 2015 |volume=94 |issue=4 |pages=333–352 |doi=10.1017/njg.2014.38 |bibcode=2015NJGeo..94..333K |s2cid=109933628 |language=en |issn=0016-7746|doi-access=free }}</ref>