Monotheism

===Western Asia===
====Abrahamic religions====
{{Main|Abrahamic religions}}
{{Further|God in Abrahamic religions}}

=====Judaism=====
{{Main|God in Judaism|Yahwism|Elohim|Baal}}
[[File:Tetragrammaton scripts.svg|frame|The tetragrammaton in [[Paleo-Hebrew alphabet|Paleo-Hebrew]] (10th century BCE to 135&nbsp;CE), old [[Aramaic alphabet|Aramaic]] (10th century BCE to 4th century CE), and square [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]] (3rd century BCE to present) scripts]]
Judaism is traditionally considered one of the oldest monotheistic religions in the world,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/judaism/|title= Religion: Judaism|website=BBC |access-date=2022-08-05|archive-date=2022-08-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220805174338/https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/judaism/|url-status=live}}</ref> although in the 8th century BCE the Israelites were [[polytheistic]], with their worship including the gods [[El (deity)|El]], [[Baal]], [[Asherah]], and [[Astarte]].<ref name=Albertz>{{cite book|last = Albertz|first = Rainer|title = A History of Israelite Religion, Volume I: From the Beginnings to the End of the Monarchy|publisher = Westminster John Knox|year = 1994|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=yvZUWbTftSgC&q=%22the+real+centre+of+the+main+cult%22%22three+great+annual+festivals%22&pg=PA89|isbn = 9780664227197|page=61}}</ref><ref name="Israel Drazin">{{cite web |title=Ancient Jews believed in the existence of many gods |author=Israel Drazin |url=http://booksnthoughts.com/ancient-jews-believed-in-the-existence-of-many-gods |access-date=2014-09-18 |archive-date=2014-10-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141021045233/http://booksnthoughts.com/ancient-jews-believed-in-the-existence-of-many-gods/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Yahweh was originally the [[national god]] of the [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|Kingdom of Israel]] and the [[Kingdom of Judah]].<ref>[https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/monotheism/ Monotheism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412164007/https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/monotheism/ |date=2022-04-12 }}, ''My Jewish Learning'', "Many critical scholars think that the interval between the Exodus and the proclamation of monotheism was much longer. Outside of Deuteronomy the earliest passages to state that there are no gods but the Lord are in poems and prayers attributed to Hannah and David, one and a half to two and a half centuries after the Exodus at the earliest. Such statements do not become common until the seventh century B.C.E., the period to which Deuteronomy is dated by the critical view."</ref> During the 8th century BCE, the worship of [[Yahweh]] in Israel was in competition with many other cults, described by the Yahwist faction collectively as [[Baal]]s. The oldest books of the [[Hebrew Bible]] reflect this competition, as in the books of [[Book of Hosea|Hosea]] and [[Book of Nahum|Nahum]], whose authors lament the "[[apostasy]]" of the people of Israel, threatening them with the wrath of God if they do not give up their polytheistic cults.<ref>1 Kings 18, Jeremiah 2; Othmar Keel, Christoph Uehlinger, Gods, Goddesses, and Images of God in Ancient Israel, Fortress Press (1998); Mark S. Smith, The Origins of Biblical Monotheism: Israel's Polytheistic Background and the Ugaritic Texts, Oxford University Press (2001)</ref><ref>Othmar Keel, Christoph Uehlinger, Gods, Goddesses, and Images of God in Ancient Israel, Fortress Press (1998); Mark S. Smith, The Origins of Biblical Monotheism: Israel's Polytheistic Background and the Ugaritic Texts, Oxford University Press (2001)</ref>

As time progressed, the [[henotheistic]] cult of Yahweh grew increasingly militant in its opposition to the worship of other gods.<ref name=Albertz/> Later, the reforms of [[King Josiah]] imposed a form of strict [[Monolatrism#In ancient Israel|monolatrism]]. After the fall of Judah and the beginning of the [[Babylonian captivity]], a small circle of priests and scribes gathered around the exiled royal court, where they first developed the concept of Yahweh as the sole God of the world.<ref name="auto"/>

[[Second Temple Judaism]] and later [[Rabbinic Judaism]] became strictly monotheistic.<ref>[[Maimonides]], [[13 Principles of Faith|13 principles of faith]], Second Principle</ref> The [[Babylonian Talmud]] references other, "foreign gods" as non-existent entities to whom humans mistakenly ascribe reality and power.<ref>e. g., Babylonian Talmud, Megilla 7b-17a.</ref> One of the best-known statements of Rabbinic Judaism on monotheism is the Second of [[Maimonides]]' [[13 principles of faith|13 Principles of faith]]:

{{blockquote|God, the Cause of all, is one. This does not mean one as in one of a pair, nor one like a species (which encompasses many individuals), nor one as in an object that is made up of many elements, nor as a single simple object that is infinitely divisible. Rather, God is a unity, unlike any other possible unity.<ref>''Yesode Ha-Torah'' 1:7</ref>}}

Some in Judaism and Islam reject the Christian idea of monotheism.<ref name=RebShmuleyKosherJoshkel>{{cite book|last=Boteach|first=Shmuley|title=[[Kosher Jesus]]|year=2012|orig-year=5772|publisher=Gefen Books|location=Springfield, NJ|isbn=9789652295781|pages=47ff, 111ff, 152ff}}</ref> Modern Judaism uses the term ''[[shituf]]'' to refer to the worship of God in a manner which Judaism deems to be neither purely monotheistic (though still permissible for non-Jews) nor polytheistic (which would be prohibited).<ref name="Oxford University Press">{{cite book|url=https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/jewish-views-on-christianity/|title=The Jewish Religion: A Companion 1st Edition|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1995|isbn=978-0198264637|editor1-last=Jacobs|editor1-first=Louis|pages=79–80|access-date=2018-04-13|archive-date=2020-05-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200521064902/https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/jewish-views-on-christianity/|url-status=live}}</ref>

=====Christianity=====
{{Main|God in Christianity|Trinity}}
[[File:Shield-Trinity-Scutum-Fidei-English.svg|thumb|upright=0.9|The [[Trinity]] is the Christian belief that God is one God in essence but three persons: [[God the Father]], [[God the Son]] ([[Jesus]]), and [[God the Holy Spirit]].<ref name="def-lateran">Definition of the [[Fourth Lateran Council]] quoted in ''[[Catechism of the Catholic Church]]'' [https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/_P17.HTM#1FT §253] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200329042425/http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/_P17.HTM#1FT |date=2020-03-29 }}</ref>]]
Among [[early Christians]], there was considerable debate over the nature of the [[Godhead (Christianity)|Godhead]], with some denying the incarnation but not the deity of Jesus ([[Docetism]]) and others later calling for an [[Arianism|Arian]] conception of God. Despite at least one earlier local [[Council of Alexandria|synod]] rejecting the claim of Arius, this [[Christology|Christological]] issue was to be one of the items addressed at the [[First Council of Nicaea]].

The First Council of Nicaea, held in [[Nicaea]] (in present-day [[Turkey]]), convoked by the [[Roman Emperors|Roman Emperor]] [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine I]] in 325, was the first [[ecumenical council|ecumenical]]<ref>''Ecumenical'', from [[Koine Greek]] [[Oikoumene|oikoumenikos]], literally meaning worldwide the earliest extant uses of the term for a council are in Eusebius's ''Life of Constantine'' 3.6 [http://khazarzar.skeptik.net/books/eusebius/vc/gr/index.htm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070707114759/http://khazarzar.skeptik.net/books/eusebius/vc/gr/index.htm|date=2007-07-07}} around 338 "{{lang|grc|σύνοδον οἰκουμενικὴν συνεκρότει}}" (he convoked an Ecumenical council), Athanasius's Ad Afros Epistola Synodica in 369 [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2819.htm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181130122828/http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2819.htm|date=2018-11-30}}, and the Letter in 382 to [[Pope Damasus I]] and the Latin bishops from the [[First Council of Constantinople]] [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-14/Npnf2-14-63.htm#TopOfPage] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060613083149/http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-14/Npnf2-14-63.htm#TopOfPage|date=2006-06-13}}</ref> council of [[bishop]]s of the [[Roman Empire]], and most significantly resulted in the first uniform Christian [[doctrine]], called the [[Nicene Creed]]. With the creation of the creed, a precedent was established for subsequent general ecumenical councils of bishops ([[synod]]s) to create statements of belief and [[Canon law|canons]] of doctrinal [[orthodoxy]]—the intent being to define a common creed for the [[Christian Church|Church]] and address [[heresy|heretical]] ideas.

One purpose of the council was to resolve [[Arian controversy|disagreements]] in [[Early centers of Christianity#Alexandria|Alexandria]] over the nature of [[Jesus]] in relationship to the Father; in particular, whether Jesus was of the [[Homoousia|same substance]] as [[God the Father]] or merely of [[Homoiousia|similar substance]]. All but two bishops took the first position; while [[Arius]]' argument failed.

[[File:Michelangelo's "God", from "the Creation of Adam".jpg|thumb|upright|left|God in ''[[The Creation of Adam]]'', fresco by [[Michelangelo]] (c. 1508–1512)]]
Christian orthodox traditions (Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and most Protestants) follow this decision, which was reaffirmed in 381 at the [[First Council of Constantinople]] and reached its full development through the work of the [[Cappadocian Fathers]]. They consider God to be a triune entity, called the Trinity, comprising three "[[person]]s", [[God the Father]], [[God the Son]], and [[God the Holy Spirit]]. These three are described as being "of the same substance" ({{lang|grc|[[ousia|ὁμοούσιος]]}}).

Christians overwhelmingly assert that monotheism is central to the Christian faith, as the Nicene Creed (and others), which gives the orthodox Christian definition of the Trinity, begins: "I believe in one God". From earlier than the times of the [[Nicene Creed]], 325&nbsp;CE, various Christian figures advocated<ref>''Examples of ante-Nicene statements'':

{{blockquote|Hence all the power of magic became dissolved; and every bond of wickedness was destroyed, men's ignorance was taken away, and the old kingdom abolished God Himself appearing in the form of a man, for the renewal of eternal life.|St. Ignatius of Antioch in ''Letter to the Ephesians'', ch.4, shorter version, Roberts-Donaldson translation}}

{{blockquote|We have also as a Physician the Lord our God Jesus the Christ the only-begotten Son and Word, before time began, but who afterwards became also man, of Mary the virgin. For 'the Word was made flesh.' Being incorporeal, He was in the body; being impassible, He was in a passable body; being immortal, He was in a mortal body; being life, He became subject to corruption, that He might free our souls from death and corruption, and heal them, and might restore them to health, when they were diseased with ungodliness and wicked lusts|St. Ignatius of Antioch in ''Letter to the Ephesians'', ch.7, shorter version, Roberts-Donaldson translation}}

{{blockquote|The Church, though dispersed throughout the whole world, even to the ends of the earth, has received from the apostles and their disciples this faith: ...one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of heaven, and earth, and the sea, and all things that are in them; and in one Christ Jesus, the Son of God, who became incarnate for our salvation; and in the Holy Spirit, who proclaimed through the prophets the dispensations of God, and the advents, and the birth from a virgin, and the passion, and the resurrection from the dead, and the ascension into heaven in the flesh of the beloved Christ Jesus, our Lord, and His manifestation from heaven in the glory of the Father 'to gather all things in one,' and to raise up anew all flesh of the whole human race, in order that to Christ Jesus, our Lord, and God, and Savior, and King, according to the will of the invisible Father, 'every knee should bow, of things in heaven, and things in earth, and things under the earth, and that every tongue should confess; to him, and that He should execute just judgment towards all...'|St. Irenaeus in ''Against Heresies'', ch.X, v.I, {{Citation | last = Donaldson| first = Sir James|title = Ante Nicene Fathers, Volume 1: Apostolic Fathers, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus | publisher = [[William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.]] | year = 1950| isbn = 978-0802880871}}}}

{{blockquote|For, in the name of God, the Father and Lord of the universe, and of our Savior Jesus Christ, and of the Holy Spirit, they then receive the washing with water|Justin Martyr in ''First Apology'', ch. LXI, {{Citation | last = Donaldson| first = Sir James|title = Ante Nicene Fathers, Volume 1: Apostolic Fathers, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus | publisher = Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company| year = 1950| isbn = 978-0802880871}}}}
</ref> the triune [[Holy Mystery|mystery]]-nature of God as a normative profession of faith. According to [[Roger E. Olson]] and Christopher Hall, through prayer, meditation, study and practice, the Christian community concluded "that God must exist as both a unity and trinity", codifying this in ecumenical council at the end of the 4th century.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Olson|first1=Roger E.|title=The Trinity|date=2002|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing|page=15|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SUAidAp8AgEC&q=the+trinity|isbn=9780802848277}}</ref>

Most modern Christians believe the [[Godhead in Christianity|Godhead]] is triune, meaning that the three persons of the Trinity are in one union in which each person is also wholly God. They also hold to the doctrine of a [[Hypostatic union|man-god]] [[Christ Jesus]] as [[God incarnate#Christianity|God incarnate]]. These Christians also do not believe that one of the three divine figures is God alone and the other two are not but that all three are mysteriously God and one. Other Christian religions, including [[Unitarian Universalism]], [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], [[Mormonism]] and others, [[Nontrinitarianism|do not share those views on the Trinity]].

Some Christian faiths, such as [[God in Mormonism|Mormonism]], argue that the Godhead is in fact three separate individuals which include God the Father, His Son Jesus Christ, and the Holy Ghost,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/comeuntochrist/article/articles-of-faith|title=The Articles of Faith: 13 Beliefs &#124; ComeUntoChrist|website=www.churchofjesuschrist.org|access-date=2022-08-05|archive-date=2022-08-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220805174338/https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/comeuntochrist/article/articles-of-faith|url-status=live}}</ref> each individual having a distinct purpose in the grand existence of human kind.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/comeuntochrist/believe/jesus|title=Jesus Christ Is Our Savior &#124; ComeUntoChrist|website=www.churchofjesuschrist.org|access-date=2022-08-05|archive-date=2022-08-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220805174339/https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/comeuntochrist/believe/jesus|url-status=live}}</ref> Furthermore, Mormons believe that before the Council of Nicaea, the predominant belief among many early Christians was that the Godhead was three separate individuals. In support of this view, they cite early Christian examples of belief in [[subordinationism]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://publications.maxwellinstitute.byu.edu/fullscreen/?pub=1105&index=3|title=Offenders for a Word|access-date=2015-02-28|archive-date=2015-12-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151210010625/http://publications.maxwellinstitute.byu.edu/fullscreen/?pub=1105&index=3|url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[Unitarianism]] is a theological movement, named for its understanding of God as one person, in direct contrast to Trinitarianism.<ref>''[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15154b.htm Unitarians] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140705011058/http://newadvent.org/cathen/15154b.htm |date=2014-07-05 }}'' at 'Catholic Encyclopedia', ed. Kevin Knight at New Advent website</ref>

Some in Judaism and some in Islam do not consider Trinitarian Christianity to be a pure form of monotheism due to the pluriform monotheistic Christian doctrine of the [[Trinity]], classifying it as ''[[shituf]]'' in Judaism and as ''[[Shirk (Islam)|shirk]]'' in Islam.<ref>{{Cite web|author=Mohammed Amin|title=Triangulating the Abrahamic faiths – measuring the closeness of Judaism, Christianity and Islam|url=http://www.mohammedamin.com/Community_issues/Triangulating-the-Abrahamic-faiths.html|quote=Christians were seen as polytheists, due to the doctrine of the Trinity. In the last few hundred years, rabbis have moderated this view slightly, but they still do not regard Christians as being fully monotheistic in the same manner as Jews or Muslims. Muslims were acknowledged as monotheists.|access-date=2016-01-20|archive-date=2016-02-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160222121459/http://mohammedamin.com/Community_issues/Triangulating-the-Abrahamic-faiths.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Oxford University Press" /><ref>{{Cite web|title=Islamic Practices|url=http://www.ulc.org/training-education/guide-to-divinity/22-religions-of-the-world/134-practicing-islam/|publisher=Universal Life Church Ministries|quote=It is the Islamic belief that Christianity is not monotheistic, as it claims, but rather polytheistic with the trinity-the father, son and the Holy Ghost.|access-date=2016-01-20|archive-date=2016-03-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307144019/http://www.ulc.org/training-education/guide-to-divinity/22-religions-of-the-world/134-practicing-islam/|url-status=live}}</ref> Trinitarian Christians, on the other hand, argue that the doctrine of the Trinity is a valid expression of monotheism, citing that the Trinity does not consist of three separate [[deities]], but rather the three [[Hypostasis (philosophy and religion)|persons]], who exist [[consubstantiality|consubstantially]] (as one [[Ousia|substance]]) within a single [[Godhead in Christianity|Godhead]].<ref>[https://icucourses.com/pages/025-10-three-persons-are-subsistent-relations Lesson 10: Three Persons are Subsistent Relations] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170731154530/https://icucourses.com/pages/025-10-three-persons-are-subsistent-relations|date=2017-07-31}}, [[International Catholic University]]: "The fatherhood constitutes the Person of the Father, the sonship constitutes the Person of the Son, and the passive aspiration constitutes the Person of the Holy Spirit. But in God "everything is one where there is no distinction by relative opposition." Consequently, even though in God there are three Persons, there is only one consciousness, one thinking and one loving. The three Persons share equally in the internal divine activity because they are all identified with the divine essence. For, if each divine Person possessed his own distinct and different consciousness, there would be three gods, not the one God of Christian revelation. So you will see that in this regard there is an immense difference between a divine Person and a human person."</ref><ref>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Trinity-Christianity Trinity] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430124922/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Trinity-Christianity |date=2021-04-30 }}, ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'': "The Council of Nicaea in 325 stated the crucial formula for that doctrine in its confession that the Son is "of the same substance [homoousios] as the Father", even though it said very little about the Holy Spirit. Over the next half century, Athanasius defended and refined the Nicene formula, and, by the end of the 4th century, under the leadership of Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nyssa, and Gregory of Nazianzus (the Cappadocian Fathers), the doctrine of the Trinity took substantially the form it has maintained ever since. It is accepted in all of the historic confessions of Christianity, even though the impact of the Enlightenment decreased its importance."</ref>

=====Islam=====
{{Main|God in Islam|Tawhid|Hanif|}}
[[File:Allah1.png|thumb|upright|Arabic calligraphy reading "Allah, may his glory be glorified"]]
In Islam, [[God in Islam|God]] ([[Allāh]]) is [[omnipotence|all-powerful]] and [[omniscience|all-knowing]], the Creator, Sustainer, Ordainer and Judge of the universe.<ref name="EoQ-Quran">Gerhard Böwering, ''God and his Attributes'', [[Encyclopedia of the Quran]]</ref><ref name="esp22">{{cite book |first=John L. |last=Esposito |title=Islam: The Straight Path |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1998 |page=22}}</ref> [[God in Islam]] is strictly singular (''[[tawhid]]''){{sfn|Esposito|1998|p=88}} unique (''wahid'') and inherently One (''ahad''), all-merciful and omnipotent.<ref name="Britannica">"Allah." [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica</ref> Allāh exists on the ''[[Throne of God#Islam|Al-'Arsh]]'' {{qref|7|54|s=y|b=y}}, but the [[Quran]] states that "No vision can encompass Him, but He encompasses all vision. For He is the Most Subtle, All-Aware." ({{qref|6|103|b=y}})<ref name="esp22"/> 

Islam emerged in the 7th century CE in the context of both Christianity and Judaism, with some thematic elements similar to [[Gnosticism]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Lawson|first=Todd|title=Gnostic Apocalypse and Islam: Qurʼan, Exegesis, Messianism and the Literary Origins of the Babi Religion|year=2011 |publisher=Routledge|location=London|isbn=978-0415495394}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Tisdall|first=William |title=The Sources of Islam: A Persian Treatise|year=1911|publisher=Morrison and Gibb|location=London |pages=46–74}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Rudolph|first=Kurt|title=Gnosis: The Nature And History of Gnosticism|year=2001|publisher=T&T Clark Int'l|location=London |isbn=978-0567086402|pages=367–390}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Hoeller|first=Stephan A.|title=Gnosticism: New Light on the Ancient Tradition of Inner Knowing|year=2002|publisher=Quest Books|location=Wheaton, IL |isbn=978-0835608169|pages=155–174}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Smith|first=Andrew|title=The Gnostics: History, Tradition, Scriptures, Influence.|year=2008a|publisher=Watkins|isbn=978-1905857784 |url=https://archive.org/details/gnosticshistoryt00smit}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Smith|first=Andrew |title=The Lost Sayings of Jesus: Teachings from Ancient Christian, Jewish, Gnostic, and Islamic Sources--Annotated & Explained |year=2006|publisher=Skylight Paths Publishing|isbn=978-1594731723}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Van Den Broek|first=Roelof|author-link=Roel van den Broek|title=Gnosis and Hermeticism from Antiquity to Modern Times|year=1998 |publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0791436110 |pages=87–108}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Tillman|first=Nagel|title=The History of Islamic Theology from Muhammad to the Present|year=2000|publisher=Markus Wiener Publishers|location=Princeton, NJ |isbn=978-1558762039|pages=215–234}}</ref> Islamic belief states that [[Muhammad]] did not bring a new religion from God, but rather the same religion as practiced by [[Islamic view of Abraham|Abraham]], [[Islamic view of Moses|Moses]], [[David in Islam|David]], [[Jesus in Islam|Jesus]] and all the other [[Prophets and messengers in Islam|prophets]] of God.<ref>{{cite web |title=People of the Book |work=[[Islam: Empire of Faith]] |url=https://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/faithpeople.html |publisher=[[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]] |access-date=2010-12-18 |archive-date=2011-06-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628213312/http://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/faithpeople.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The assertion of Islam is that the message of God had been corrupted, distorted or lost over time, and the Quran was sent to Muhammad in order to correct the lost message of the [[Tawrat]] (Torah), [[Injil]] (Gospel) and [[Zabur]].<ref>Accad (2003): According to Ibn Taymiya, although only some Muslims accept the textual veracity of the entire Bible, most Muslims will grant the veracity of most of it.</ref>{{sfn|Esposito|1998|pp=6, 12}}{{sfn|Esposito|2002|pp=4–5}}{{sfn|Peters|2003|p=9}}<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Muhammad |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online |author1=F. Buhl | author2=A. T. Welch}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Tahrif |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online |author=[[Hava Lazarus-Yafeh]]}}</ref>

The Quran asserts the existence of a single and absolute truth that transcends the world; a unique and indivisible being who is independent of the creation.<ref name="EncRel">Vincent J. Cornell, ''Encyclopedia of Religion'', Vol 5, pp.3561-3562</ref> The Quran rejects binary modes of thinking such as the idea of a [[Dualistic cosmology|duality]] of God by arguing that both [[Goodness and evil|good and evil]] generate from God's creative act. God is a universal god rather than a local, tribal or parochial one; an absolute who integrates all affirmative values and brooks no evil.<ref name="Barlas96">Asma Barlas, Believing Women in Islam, p.96</ref> [[Ash'ari]] theology, which dominated Sunni Islam from the tenth to the nineteenth century, insists on ultimate divine transcendence and holds that divine unity is not accessible to human reason. Ash'arism teaches that human knowledge regarding it is limited to what has been revealed through the prophets, and on such paradoxes as God's creation of evil, revelation had to accept ''bila kayfa'' (without [asking] how).<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|author=Tamara Sonn|title=Tawḥīd |encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World|editor=John L. Esposito|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford |year=2009|url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001/acref-9780195305135-e-0788?rskey=y8ZWqZ |url-access=subscription |isbn=9780195305135}}</ref>

''Tawhid'' constitutes the foremost article of the Muslim [[Shahada|profession of faith]], "There is no god but [[Allah|God]], Muhammad is the messenger of God.<ref name="EoI">D. Gimaret, ''Tawhid'', [[Encyclopedia of Islam]]</ref> To attribute divinity to a created entity is the only unpardonable sin mentioned in the Quran.<ref name="Barlas96"/> The entirety of the Islamic teaching rests on the principle of ''tawhid''.{{sfn|Ramadan|2005|p=230}}

Medieval Islamic philosopher [[Al-Ghazali]] offered a proof of monotheism from [[omnipotence]], asserting there can only be one omnipotent being. For if there were two omnipotent beings, the first would either have power over the second (meaning the second is not omnipotent) or not (meaning the first is not omnipotent); thus implying that there could only be one omnipotent being.<ref>Wainwright, William, "[https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2018/entries/monotheism Monotheism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190318100216/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2018/entries/monotheism/ |date=2019-03-18 }}", ''[[The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]'' (Fall 2018 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).</ref>

As they traditionally profess a concept of monotheism with a singular entity as God, Judaism<ref name="RebShmuleyKosherJoshkel"/> and Islam reject the Christian idea of monotheism. Judaism uses the term [[Shituf]] to refer to non-monotheistic ways of worshiping God. Although Muslims [[Veneration#Islam|venerate]] Jesus ([[Jesus in Islam|Isa]] in Arabic) as a prophet and messiah, they do not accept the doctrine that he was a begotten son of God.

=====Mandaeism=====
[[File:درفش مندائي darfash mandaean.jpg|thumb|upright|Mandaean pendant]]
{{Main|Mandaeism|Mandaeans}}
Mandaeism or Mandaeanism ({{lang-ar|مندائية}} ''{{transliteration|ar|ALA-LC|Mandāʼīyah}}''), sometimes also known as Sabianism, is a monotheistic, [[Gnosticism|Gnostic]], and [[ethnic religion]].<ref>{{citation|last=Buckley|first=Jorunn Jacobsen|title=The Mandaeans: ancient texts and modern people|year=2002|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780195153859|url=http://mandaeannetwork.com/Mandaean/books/english/2The_Mandaeans_Ancient_Texts_and_Modern_People_American_Academy_of_Religion_Books_Jorunn_Jacobsen_Buckley.pdf?bcsi_scan_955b0cd764557e80=0&bcsi_scan_filename=2The_Mandaeans_Ancient_Texts_and_Modern_People_American_Academy_of_Religion_Books_Jorunn_Jacobsen_Buckley.pdf|page=4|access-date=2019-10-05|archive-date=2017-10-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011181602/http://mandaeannetwork.com/Mandaean/books/english/2The_Mandaeans_Ancient_Texts_and_Modern_People_American_Academy_of_Religion_Books_Jorunn_Jacobsen_Buckley.pdf?bcsi_scan_955b0cd764557e80=0&bcsi_scan_filename=2The_Mandaeans_Ancient_Texts_and_Modern_People_American_Academy_of_Religion_Books_Jorunn_Jacobsen_Buckley.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Ginza>{{cite book|title=[[Ginza Rabba]]|translator1-last=Al-Saadi |translator1-first=Qais |translator2-last=Al-Saadi |translator2-first=Hamed |edition=2nd |place=Germany |year=2019 |publisher=Drabsha}}</ref>{{rp|1}} Mandaeans consider [[Adam#In Mandaeism|Adam]], [[Seth#Mandaeism|Seth]], [[Noah#Gnosticism|Noah]], [[Shem#In Mandaeism|Shem]] and [[John the Baptist#Mandaeism|John the Baptist]] to be prophets, with Adam being the founder of the religion and John being the greatest and [[Last prophet|final prophet]].<ref name=BSN>{{cite web|author=Brikhah S. Nasoraia|title=Sacred Text and Esoteric Praxis in Sabian Mandaean Religion|year=2012|url=http://isamveri.org/pdfdrg/D201813/2012_I/2012_I_NASORAIAB.pdf|access-date=2022-03-17|archive-date=2022-10-09|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://isamveri.org/pdfdrg/D201813/2012_I/2012_I_NASORAIAB.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|45}} The Mandaeans believe in one God commonly named [[Hayyi Rabbi]] meaning 'The Great Life' or 'The Great Living God'.<ref name=Nashmi>{{Citation|last=Nashmi|first=Yuhana|title=Contemporary Issues for the Mandaean Faith|website=Mandaean Associations Union|date=24 April 2013|url=http://www.mandaeanunion.com/history-english/item/488-mandaean-faith|access-date=8 December 2021|archive-date=31 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211031155605/http://www.mandaeanunion.com/history-english/item/488-mandaean-faith|url-status=live}}</ref> The Mandaeans speak a dialect of [[Eastern Aramaic languages|Eastern Aramaic]] known as [[Mandaic language|Mandaic]]. The name 'Mandaean' comes from the Aramaic ''[[Manda (Mandaeism)|manda]]'' meaning "knowledge", as does Greek ''[[gnosis]]''.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Rudolph|first1=Kurt|title=Mandaeism|date=1978|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9789004052529|page=15 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M1kWzSxecUQC&q=kurt%20rudolph%20mandaeism&pg=PA15}}</ref><ref>The Light and the Dark: Dualism in ancient Iran, India, and China Petrus Franciscus Maria Fontaine – 1990</ref> The term 'Sabianism' is derived from the [[Sabians]] ({{lang-ar|الصابئة|link=no}}, {{transliteration|ar|ALA-LC|al-Ṣābiʾa}}), a mysterious religious group mentioned three times in the [[Quran]] alongside the Jews, the Christians and the [[Zoroastrians]] as a '[[people of the book]]', and whose name was historically claimed by the Mandaeans as well as by several other religious groups in order to gain the legal protection ({{transliteration|ar|[[dhimma]]}}) offered by [[Islamic law]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last1=De Blois|first1=François|year=1960–2007|title=Ṣābiʾ|editor1-last=Bearman|editor1-first=P.|editor1-link=Peri Bearman|editor2-last=Bianquis|editor2-first=Th.|editor2-link=Thierry Bianquis|editor3-last=Bosworth|editor3-first=C.E.|editor3-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth|editor4-last=van Donzel|editor4-first=E.|editor4-link=Emeri Johannes van Donzel|editor5-last=Heinrichs|editor5-first=W.P.|editor5-link=Wolfhart Heinrichs|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition|doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0952}} {{cite book|last1=Van Bladel|first1=Kevin|year=2017|title=From Sasanian Mandaeans to Ṣābians of the Marshes|location=Leiden|publisher=Brill|doi=10.1163/9789004339460|isbn=978-90-04-33943-9|url=https://brill.com/view/title/34389|access-date=2022-06-19|archive-date=2022-06-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220601074236/https://brill.com/view/title/34389|url-status=live}} p. 5.</ref> Mandaeans recognize God to be the eternal, creator of all, the one and only in domination who has no partner.<ref name=Routledge>Hanish, Shak (2019). The Mandaeans In Iraq. In {{cite book|last=Rowe|first=Paul S.|title=Routledge Handbook of Minorities in the Middle East|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bOF1DwAAQBAJ&q=Routledge+Handbook+of+Minorities+in+the+Middle+East|page=163|year=2019|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781317233794|place=London and New York|access-date=2023-03-19|archive-date=2022-07-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730071808/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Routledge_Handbook_of_Minorities_in_the/bOF1DwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Routledge+Handbook+of+Minorities+in+the+Middle+East&printsec=frontcover|url-status=live}}</ref>

=====Baháʼí Faith=====
{{Main|God in the Baháʼí Faith}}
[[File:House of Worship Germany 2007.jpg|thumb|Baháʼí House of Worship, [[Langenhain]], Germany]]
God in the [[Baháʼí Faith]] is taught to be the Imperishable, uncreated Being Who is the source of existence, too great for humans to fully comprehend. Human primitive understanding of God is achieved through his revelations via his divine intermediary [[Manifestation of God (Baháʼí Faith)|Manifestations]].<ref name="hatcher_huri">{{Cite journal
|last = Hatcher
|first = John S.
|year = 2005
|title = Unveiling the Hurí of Love
|journal = Journal of Baháʼí Studies
|volume = 15
|issue = 1
|pages = 1–38
|doi = 10.31581/jbs-15.1-4.1(2005)
|doi-access = free
}}</ref><ref name="manifestation">{{Cite book
|first = Juan
|last = Cole
|year = 1982
|chapter = The Concept of Manifestation in the Bahá'í Writings
|title = Bahá'í Studies
|volume = 9
|pages = 1–38
|chapter-url = http://bahai-library.com/cole_concept_manifestation
|access-date = 2012-05-28
|archive-date = 2019-05-17
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190517105145/http://bahai-library.com/cole_concept_manifestation
|url-status = live
}}</ref> In the Baháʼí faith, such Christian doctrines as the [[Trinity]] are seen as compromising the Baháʼí view that God is single and has no equal,<ref>{{cite journal | title = Jesus Christ in the Baha'i Writings | first = Robert | last = Stockman | journal = Baháʼí Studies Review | volume = 2 | issue = 1 | url = http://bahai-library.com/articles/stockman.jesus.html | access-date = 2012-05-28 | archive-date = 2012-10-03 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121003150622/http://bahai-library.com/articles/stockman.jesus.html | url-status = live }}</ref>
and the very existence of the Baháʼí Faith is a challenge to the Islamic doctrine of the finality of Muhammad's revelation.<ref>*{{Cite book
|last = Lewis
|first = Bernard
|year = 1984
|title = The Jews of Islam
|publisher = Princeton University Press
|place = Princeton
|isbn = 0-691-00807-8
|title-link = The Jews of Islam
}}</ref>

God in the Baháʼí Faith communicates to humanity through divine intermediaries, known as [[Manifestation of God (Baháʼí Faith)|Manifestations of God]].<ref name="Psmith107-108"/> These Manifestations establish religion in the world.<ref name="manifestation" /> It is through these divine intermediaries that humans can approach God, and through them God brings divine revelation and law.<ref name="BFaith-115-123">{{cite book | first = William | last = Hatcher | year = 1985 | title = The Baháʼí Faith | publisher = Harper & Row | location = San Francisco | isbn = 0060654414 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/bahfaithemer00hatc/page/115 115–123] | url = https://archive.org/details/bahfaithemer00hatc/page/115 }}</ref>

The Oneness of God is one of the core teachings of the [[Baháʼí Faith]]. The [[Obligatory Baháʼí prayers|obligatory prayers]] in the Baháʼí Faith involve explicit monotheistic testimony.<ref>{{cite book |last = Smith |first = P. |year = 1999 |title = A Concise Encyclopedia of the Baháʼí Faith |publisher = Oneworld Publications |location = Oxford, UK |isbn = 1-85168-184-1 |url-access = registration |url = https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope0000smit }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last = Momen |first = M. |year = 1997 |title = A Short Introduction to the Baháʼí Faith |publisher = One World Publications |location = Oxford, UK |isbn = 1-85168-209-0 |url = https://archive.org/details/bahaifaith00mooj }}</ref> God is the imperishable, uncreated being who is the source of all existence.<ref name="BFaith-74">{{harvnb|Hatcher|1985|p=74}}</ref> He is described as "a personal God, unknowable, inaccessible, the source of all Revelation, eternal, [[omniscience|omniscient]], [[omnipresence|omnipresent]] and [[omnipotence|almighty]]".<ref name="Psmith106">{{harvnb|Smith|2008|p=106}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Effendi|1944|p=139}}</ref> Although transcendent and inaccessible directly, his image is reflected in his creation. The purpose of creation is for the created to have the capacity to know and love its creator.<ref name="Psmith111">{{harvnb|Smith|2008|p=111}}</ref> God communicates his will and purpose to humanity through intermediaries, known as [[Manifestation of God (Baháʼí Faith)|Manifestations of God]], who are the prophets and messengers that have founded religions from prehistoric times up to the present day.<ref name="Psmith107-108">{{harvnb|Smith|2008|pp=107–108}}</ref>

=====Rastafari=====
[[Rastafari]], sometimes termed Rastafarianism, is classified as both a [[new religious movement]] and [[social movement]]. It developed in [[Jamaica]] during the 1930s. It lacks any centralised authority and there is much heterogeneity among practitioners, who are known as Rastafari, Rastafarians, or Rastas.

Rastafari refer to their beliefs, which are based on a specific interpretation of the [[Bible]], as "Rastalogy". Central is a monotheistic belief in a single God—referred to as [[Jah]]—who partially resides within each individual. The former emperor of Ethiopia, [[Haile Selassie]], is given central importance. Many Rastas regard him as an incarnation of Jah on Earth and as the [[Second Coming of Christ]]. Others regard him as a human prophet who fully recognised the inner divinity within every individual.

====Zoroastrianism====
{{Main|Zoroastrianism|Iranian religions}}
[[File:Faravahar-Gold.svg|thumb|[[Faravahar]] (or Ferohar) is one of the primary symbols of Zoroastrianism, believed to be the depiction of a Fravashi (guardian spirit).]]

By some scholars, the Zoroastrians ("Parsis" or "Zartoshtis") are sometimes credited with being some of the first monotheists and having had influence on other world religions.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Ferrero |first=Mario |date=2021-12-01 |title=From Polytheism to Monotheism: Zoroaster and Some Economic Theory |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s41412-021-00113-4 |journal=Homo Oeconomicus |language=en |volume=38 |issue=1 |pages=77–108 |doi=10.1007/s41412-021-00113-4 |issn=2366-6161|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Heckert |first=Jason |date=May 2023 |title=Reflections Across Religions: A Historical Examination of Common Themes in Zoroastrianism, Judaism, and Christianity |url=https://digitalcommons.winthrop.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1151&context=graduatetheses |website=digitalcommons.winthrop.edu}}</ref> 
Zoroastrianism combines [[Cosmology|cosmogonic]] dualism and [[Eschatology|eschatological]] monotheism which makes it unique among the religions of the world. There are two issues that have long made it problematic to identify Zoroastrianism as true monotheism: the presence of lesser deities and dualism. But before hastening to conclude that the Amesha Spentas and the other yazatas compromise the purity of monotheism, we should consider that the other historical monotheisms too made room for other figures endowed with supernatural powers to bridge the gulf between the exalted, remote Creator God and the human world: the angels in all of them (whose conception in post-exilic Judaism was apparently developed after the pattern of the Amesha Spentas; Boyce and Grenet, 1991, 404–405), the saints and the Virgin Mary in several Christian churches, and the other persons of the Trinity in all of Christianity. Despite the vast differences with Zoroastrian theology, the common thread is that all these beings are subordinate to the Godhead as helpers or (in the case of the persons of the Trinity) co-equals, hence they do not pursue different interests and are worshiped jointly with the Godhead, not separately; therefore the supplicant’s dilemma does not arise.<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Citation |title=Buddhism in China: A Historical Sketch |journal=The Journal of Religion}}.</ref><ref name="Boyce_1975_155">{{harvnb|Boyce|1975a|p=155}}.</ref>{{Ref_label|water_worshippers|ε|none}}

====Yazidism====
{{Main|Yazidism}}
God in Yazidism created the world and entrusted it into the care of seven [[Holy]] Beings, known as [[Angel]]s.<ref name="Asatrian-Arakelova 2014">{{cite book |author1-last=Asatrian |author1-first=Garnik S. |author1-link=Garnik Asatrian |author2-last=Arakelova |author2-first=Victoria |year=2014 |title=The Religion of the Peacock Angel: The Yezidis and Their Spirit World |chapter=Part I: The One God - Malak-Tāwūs: The Leader of the Triad |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y1RsBAAAQBAJ |location=[[Abingdon, Oxfordshire]] |publisher=[[Routledge]] |series=Gnostica |pages=1–28 |doi=10.4324/9781315728896 |isbn=978-1-84465-761-2 |oclc=931029996}}</ref><ref name="Birgül">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ql4BAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA71|title=The Yezidis: The History of a Community, Culture and Religion|last=Açikyildiz|first=Birgül|date=2014-12-23|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=9780857720610|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Allison 2017">{{cite encyclopedia |author-last=Allison |author-first=Christine |date=25 January 2017 |title=The Yazidis |url=https://oxfordre.com/religion/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-254 |encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion |location=[[Oxford]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.254 |isbn=9780199340378 |doi-access=free |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190311065225/https://oxfordre.com/religion/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-254 |archive-date=11 March 2019 |url-status=live |access-date=15 May 2021}}</ref> The Yazidis believe in a divine Triad.<ref name="Asatrian-Arakelova 2014"/><ref name="Allison 2017"/><ref name="Asatrian-Arakelova 2003">{{cite journal |author1-link=Garnik Asatrian |date=January 2003 |editor-last=Asatrian |editor-first=Garnik S. |title=Malak-Tāwūs: The Peacock Angel of the Yezidis |journal=[[Iran and the Caucasus]] |location=[[Leiden]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] in collaboration with the Caucasian Centre for Iranian Studies ([[Yerevan]]) |volume=7 |issue=1–2 |pages=1–36 |doi=10.1163/157338403X00015 |issn=1609-8498 |eissn=1573-384X |jstor=4030968 |lccn=2001227055 |oclc=233145721 |author1-last=Asatrian |author1-first=Garnik S. |author2-last=Arakelova |author2-first=Victoria}}</ref> The original, hidden God of the Yazidis is considered to be [[Deus otiosus|remote and inactive]] in relation to his creation, except to contain and bind it together within his essence.<ref name="Asatrian-Arakelova 2014"/> His first [[Emanationism|emanation]] is the Angel [[Melek Taus|Melek Taûs]] ({{Lang|ku|Tawûsê Melek}}), who functions as the ruler of the world and leader of the other Angels.<ref name="Asatrian-Arakelova 2014"/><ref name="Allison 2017"/><ref name="Asatrian-Arakelova 2003"/> The second [[Hypostasis (philosophy and religion)|hypostasis]] of the divine Triad is the [[Sheikh Adi ibn Musafir|Sheikh 'Adī ibn Musafir]]. The third is [[Sultan Ezid]]. These are the three hypostases of the one God. The identity of these three is sometimes blurred, with Sheikh 'Adī considered to be a manifestation of Tawûsê Melek and vice versa; the same also applies to Sultan Ezid.<ref name="Asatrian-Arakelova 2014"/> Yazidis are called ''{{Lang|ku|Miletê Tawûsê Melek}}'' ("the nation of Tawûsê Melek").<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Asatrian|first1=Garnik S.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y1RsBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT23|title=The Religion of the Peacock Angel: The Yezidis and Their Spirit World|last2=Arakelova|first2=Victoria|date=2014-09-03|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-54428-9|language=en}}</ref>

God is referred to by Yazidis as ''{{Lang|ku|Xwedê}}'', {{Lang|ku|Xwedawend}}, ''{{Lang|ku|Êzdan}}'', and ''{{Lang|ku|Pedsha}}'' ('King'), and, less commonly, ''{{Lang|ku|Ellah}}'' and ''{{Lang|ku|Heq}}''.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kreyenbroek|first=Philip G.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OTQqAQAAMAAJ&q=Ancient+iranian|title=Yezidism: its Background, Observances, and Textual Tradition|date=1995|location=[[Lewiston, New York]] |publisher=[[Edwin Mellen Press]]|isbn=978-0-7734-9004-8|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|author=Omarkhali, Khanna|title=The Yezidi religious textual tradition, from oral to written : categories, transmission, scripturalisation, and canonisation of the Yezidi oral religious texts: with samples of oral and written religious texts and with audio and video samples on CD-ROM|year=2017|publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=978-3-447-10856-0|oclc=994778968}}</ref><ref name="Birgül" /><ref name="Asatrian-Arakelova 2014"/><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Omarkhali |first=Khanna |title=Names of God and Forms of Address to God in Yezidism. With the Religious Hymn of the Lord |journal=Manuscripta Orientalia International Journal for Oriental Manuscript Research |volume=15 |number=2 |date=December 2009 |url=https://www.academia.edu/7918282 |language=en |access-date=2023-02-09 |archive-date=2023-03-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326032900/https://www.academia.edu/7918282 |url-status=live }}</ref> According to some Yazidi hymns (known as ''Qewls''), God has 1,001 names, or 3,003 names according to other Qewls.<ref name="Kreyenbroek 2005">{{cite book | last=Kreyenbroek | first=Philip | author-link=Philip G. Kreyenbroek | title=God and Sheikh Adi are perfect: sacred poems and religious narratives from the Yezidi tradition | publisher=Harrassowitz | publication-place=Wiesbaden | year=2005 | isbn=978-3-447-05300-6 | oclc=63127403}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=45N4DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA76|title=Deutsche Yeziden: Geschichte, Gegenwart, Prognosen|last=Kartal|first=Celalettin|date=2016-06-22|publisher=Tectum Wissenschaftsverlag|isbn=9783828864887|language=de}}</ref>