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Do not fill this in! ==Phonology== {{Main|Latin phonology and orthography}} The ancient pronunciation of Latin has been reconstructed; among the data used for reconstruction are explicit statements about pronunciation by ancient authors, misspellings, puns, ancient etymologies, the spelling of Latin loanwords in other languages, and the historical development of Romance languages.<ref>{{harvnb|Allen|1978|pp=viii–ix}}</ref> ===Consonants=== The consonant [[phoneme]]s of Classical Latin are as follows:<ref>{{cite book |first=Andrew L. |last=Sihler |title=New Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IeHmqKY2BqoC|year=1995|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-508345-3 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161109231225/https://books.google.com/books?id=IeHmqKY2BqoC |archive-date=9 November 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> {| class="wikitable IPA" style="text-align: center;" |- ! colspan="2" rowspan="2" | ! rowspan="2" | [[Labial consonant|Labial]] ! rowspan="2" | [[Dental consonant|Dental]] ! rowspan="2" | [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]] ! colspan="2" | [[Velar consonant|Velar]] ! rowspan="2" | [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]] |- ! plain ! [[Labialisation|labial]] |- ! rowspan="2" | [[Plosive consonant|Plosive]] ! <small>[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small> | {{IPA link|b}} | {{IPA link|d}} | | {{IPA link|ɡ}} | {{IPA link|ɡʷ}} | |- ! <small>[[voicelessness|voiceless]]</small> | {{IPA link|p}} | {{IPA link|t}} | | {{IPA link|k}} | {{IPA link|kʷ}} | |- ! rowspan="2" | [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]] ! <small>[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small> | | ({{IPA link|z}}) | | | | |- ! <small>[[voicelessness|voiceless]]</small> | {{IPA link|f}} | {{IPA link|s}} | | | | {{IPA link|h}} |- ! colspan="2" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]] | {{IPA link|m}} | {{IPA link|n}} | | ({{IPA link|ŋ}}) | | |- ! colspan="2" | [[Rhotic consonant|Rhotic]] | | {{IPA link|r}} | | | | |- ! colspan="2" | [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]] | | {{IPA link|l}} | {{IPA link|j}} | | {{IPA link|w}} | |} {{IPA|/z/}} was not native to Classical Latin. It appeared in Greek loanwords starting around the first century BC, when it was probably pronounced (at least by educated speakers) {{IPA|[z]}} initially and [[Gemination|doubled]] {{IPA|[zz]}} between vowels, in accordance with its pronunciation in [[Koine Greek]]. In Classical Latin poetry, the letter {{angbr|{{sqc|z}}}} between vowels always counts as two consonants for metrical purposes.<ref>{{Harvnb|Levy|1973|p=150}}</ref><ref name="Allen Z">{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|pp=45, 46}}</ref> The consonant ⟨b⟩ usually sounds as [b]; however, when ⟨t⟩ or ⟨s⟩ follows ⟨b⟩ then it is pronounced as in [pt] or [ps]. In Latin, ⟨q⟩ is always followed by the [[vowel]] ⟨u⟩. Together they make a [kʷ] sound.<ref name="Wheelock 7th ed.">{{Cite book|last=Wheelock, Frederic M.|title=Wheelock's Latin|others=LaFleur, Richard A.|date=7 June 2011|isbn=978-0-06-199721-1|edition=7th|location=New York|oclc=670475844 |publisher=HarperCollins}}</ref> In Old and Classical Latin, the Latin alphabet had no distinction between [[letter case|uppercase and lowercase]], and the letters {{angbr|J U W}} did not exist. In place of {{angbr|J U}}, {{angbr|I V}} were used, respectively; {{angbr|I V}} represented both vowels and consonants. Most of the letter forms were similar to modern uppercase, as can be seen in the inscription from the Colosseum shown at the top of the article. The spelling systems used in Latin dictionaries and modern editions of Latin texts, however, normally use {{angbr|j u}} in place of Classical-era {{angbr|i v}}. Some systems use {{angbr|j v}} for the consonant sounds {{IPA|/j w/}} except in the combinations {{angbr|gu su qu}} for which {{angbr|v}} is never used. Some notes concerning the mapping of Latin phonemes to English graphemes are given below: {| class="wikitable" |+ Notes |- ! Latin<br />grapheme !! Latin<br />phoneme !! English examples |- ! {{angbr|c}}, {{angbr|k}} ! {{IPA|[k]}} | Always as ''k'' in ''sky'' ({{IPA|/skaɪ/}}) |- ! {{angbr|t}} ! {{IPA|[t]}} | As ''t'' in ''stay'' ({{IPA|/steɪ/}}) |- ! {{angbr|s}} ! {{IPA|[s]}} | As ''s'' in ''say'' ({{IPA|/seɪ/}}) |- ! rowspan="2" | {{angbr|g}} ! {{IPA|[ɡ]}} | Always as ''g'' in ''good'' ({{IPA|/ɡʊd/}}) |- ! {{IPA|[ŋ]}} | Before {{angbr|n}}, as ''ng'' in ''sing'' ({{IPA|/sɪŋ/}}) |- ! rowspan="2" | {{angbr|n}} ! {{IPA|[n]}} | As ''n'' in ''man'' ({{IPA|/mæn/}}) |- ! {{IPA|[ŋ]}} | Before {{angbr|c}}, {{angbr|x}}, and {{angbr|g}}, as ''ng'' in ''sing'' ({{IPA|/sɪŋ/}}) |- ! rowspan="2" | {{angbr|l}} ! {{IPA|[l]}} | When doubled {{angbr|ll}} and before {{angbr|i}}, as [[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|"light L"]], {{IPA|[l̥]}} in ''link'' ({{IPA|[l̥ɪnk]}}) ({{lang|la|l exilis}})<ref>{{harvnb|Sihler|2008|p=174}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Allen|1978|pp=33–34}}</ref> |- ! {{IPA|[ɫ]}} | In all other positions, as [[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|"dark L"]], {{IPA|[ɫ]}} in ''bowl'' ({{IPA|[boʊɫ]}}) ({{lang|la|l pinguis}}) |- ! {{angbr|qu}} ! {{IPA|[kʷ]}} | Similar to ''qu'' in ''squint'' ({{IPA|/skwɪnt/}}) |- ! {{angbr|u}} ! {{IPA|[w]}} | Sometimes at the beginning of a syllable, or after {{angbr|g}} and {{angbr|s}}, as {{IPA|/w/}} in ''wine'' ({{IPA|/waɪn/}}) |- ! rowspan="2" | {{angbr|i}} ! {{IPA|[j]}} | Sometimes at the beginning of a syllable, as ''y'' ({{IPA|/j/}}) in ''yard'' ({{IPA|/jɑɹd/}}) |- ! {{IPA|[ij]}} | "y" ({{IPA|/j/}}), in between vowels, becomes "i-y", being pronounced as parts of two separate syllables, as in {{lang|la|capiō}} ({{IPA|/kapiˈjo:/}}) |- ! {{angbr|x}} ! {{IPA|[ks]}} | A letter representing {{angbr|c}} + {{angbr|s}}: as ''x'' in English ''axe'' ({{IPA|/æks/}}) |} In Classical Latin, as in modern Italian, double consonant letters were pronounced as [[Gemination|long]] consonant sounds distinct from short versions of the same consonants. Thus the ''nn'' in Classical Latin {{lang|la|annus}} "year" (and in Italian {{lang|it|anno}}) is pronounced as a doubled {{IPA|/nn/}} as in English ''unnamed''. (In English, distinctive consonant length or doubling occurs only at the boundary between two words or [[morpheme]]s, as in that example.) ===Vowels=== ====Simple vowels==== {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |- ! !! Front !! Central !! Back |- ! Close | {{IPAlink|iː}} {{IPAlink|ɪ}} || || {{IPAlink|ʊ}} {{IPAlink|uː}} |- ! Mid | {{IPAlink|eː}} {{IPAlink|ɛ}} || || {{IPAlink|ɔ}} {{IPAlink|oː}} |- ! Open | || {{IPAlink|a}} {{IPAlink|aː}} || |} In Classical Latin, {{angbr|U}} did not exist as a letter distinct from V; the written form {{angbr|V}} was used to represent both a vowel and a consonant. {{angbr|Y}} was adopted to represent [[upsilon]] in loanwords from [[Greek language|Greek]], but it was pronounced like {{angbr|u}} and {{angbr|i}} by some speakers. It was also used in native Latin words by confusion with Greek words of similar meaning, such as {{lang|la|sylva}} and {{lang|grc|ὕλη}}. Classical Latin distinguished between [[vowel length|long and short vowels]]. Then, long vowels, except for {{angbr|i}}, were frequently marked using the [[apex (diacritic)|apex]], which was sometimes similar to an [[acute accent]] {{angbr|Á É Ó V́ Ý}}. Long {{IPA|/iː/}} was written using a taller version of {{angbr|I}}, called {{lang|la|i longa}} "[[long I]]": {{angbr|ꟾ}}. In modern texts, long vowels are often indicated by a [[macron (diacritic)|macron]] {{angbr|ā ē ī ō ū}}, and short vowels are usually unmarked except when it is necessary to distinguish between words, when they are marked with a [[breve]] {{angbr|ă ĕ ĭ ŏ ŭ}}. However, they would also signify a long vowel by writing the vowel larger than other letters in a word or by repeating the vowel twice in a row.<ref name="Wheelock 7th ed." /> The acute accent, when it is used in modern Latin texts, indicates stress, as in Spanish, rather than length. Although called long vowels, their exact quality in Classical Latin is different from short vowels. The difference is described in the table below: {| class="wikitable" |+ Pronunciation of Latin vowels ! Latin<br />grapheme ! Latin<br />phone ! modern examples |- ! rowspan="2" | {{angbr|a}} ! {{IPA|[a]}} | similar to the ''a'' in ''part'' (/paɹt/) |- ! {{IPA|[aː]}} | similar to the ''a'' in ''father'' (/fɑːðəɹ/) |- ! rowspan="2" | {{angbr|e}} ! {{IPA|[ɛ]}} | as ''e'' in ''pet'' (/pɛt/) |- ! {{IPA|[eː]}} | similar to ''e'' in ''hey'' (/heɪ/) |- ! rowspan="2" | {{angbr|i}} ! {{IPA|[ɪ]}} | as ''i'' in ''pit'' (/pɪt/) |- ! {{IPA|[iː]}} | similar to ''i'' in ''machine'' (/məʃiːn/) |- ! rowspan="2" | {{angbr|o}} ! {{IPA|[ɔ]}} | as ''o'' in ''port'' (/pɔɹt/) |- ! {{IPA|[oː]}} | similar to ''o'' in ''post'' (/poʊst/) |- ! rowspan="2" | {{angbr|u}} ! {{IPA|[ʊ]}} | as ''u'' in put (/pʊt/) |- ! {{IPA|[uː]}} | similar to ''ue'' in ''true'' (/tɹuː/) |- ! rowspan="2" | {{angbr|y}} ! {{IPA|[ʏ]}} | does not exist in English, closest approximation is the ''u'' in ''mule'' |- ! {{IPA|[yː]}} | does not exist in English, closest approximation is the ''u'' in ''cute'' |} This difference in quality is posited by [[W. Sidney Allen]] in his book ''Vox Latina''. However, Andrea Calabrese has disputed this assertion, based in part upon the observation that in Sardinian and some Lucanian dialects, each long and short vowel pair merged, as opposed to in Italo-Western languages in which short /i/ and /u/ merged with long /eː/ and /o:/ (c.f. Latin 'siccus', Italian 'secco', and Sardinian 'siccu'). A vowel letter followed by {{angbr|m}} at the end of a word, or a vowel letter followed by {{angbr|n}} before {{angbr|s}} or {{angbr|f}}, represented a short [[nasal vowel]], as in {{lang|la|monstrum}} {{IPA|[mõːstrũ]}}. ====Diphthongs==== Classical Latin had several [[diphthong]]s. The two most common were {{angbr|ae au}}. {{angbr|oe}} was fairly rare, and {{angbr|ui eu ei}} were very rare, at least in native Latin words.<ref name="classical diphthongs">{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|pp=60–63}}</ref> There has also been debate over whether {{angbr|ui}} is truly a diphthong in Classical Latin, due to its rarity, absence in works of Roman grammarians, and the roots of Classical Latin words (i.e. {{lang|la|hui ce}} to {{lang|la|huic}}, {{lang|la|quoi}} to {{lang|la|cui}}, etc.) not matching or being similar to the pronunciation of classical words if {{angbr|ui}} were to be considered a diphthong.<ref>{{cite journal|jstor=282713|title=The Diphthong -ui in Latin|journal=Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association|volume=41|pages=19–23|last=Husband|first=Richard|date=1910|doi=10.2307/282713}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> The sequences sometimes did not represent diphthongs. {{angbr|ae}} and {{angbr|oe}} also represented a sequence of two vowels in different syllables in {{lang|la|aēnus}} {{IPA|[aˈeː.nʊs]}} "of bronze" and {{lang|la|coēpit}} {{IPA|[kɔˈeː.pɪt]}} "began", and {{angbr|au ui eu ei ou}} represented sequences of two vowels or of a vowel and one of the semivowels {{IPA|/j w/}}, in {{lang|la|cavē}} {{IPA|[ˈka.weː]}} "beware!", {{lang|la|cuius}} {{IPA|[ˈkʊj.jʊs]}} "whose", {{lang|la|monuī}} {{IPA|[ˈmɔn.ʊ.iː]}} "I warned", {{lang|la|solvī}} {{IPA|[ˈsɔɫ.wiː]}} "I released", {{lang|la|dēlēvī}} {{IPA|[deːˈleː.wiː]}} "I destroyed", {{lang|la|eius}} {{IPA|[ˈɛj.jʊs]}} "his", and {{lang|la|novus}} {{IPA|[ˈnɔ.wʊs]}} "new". Old Latin had more diphthongs, but most of them changed into long vowels in Classical Latin. The Old Latin diphthong {{angbr|ai}} and the sequence {{angbr|āī}} became Classical {{angbr|ae}}. Old Latin {{angbr|oi}} and {{angbr|ou}} changed to Classical {{angbr|ū}}, except in a few words whose {{angbr|oi}} became Classical {{angbr|oe}}. These two developments sometimes occurred in different words from the same root: for instance, Classical {{lang|la|poena}} "punishment" and {{lang|la|pūnīre}} "to punish".<ref name="classical diphthongs" /> Early Old Latin {{angbr|ei}} usually monophthongized to a later Old Latin {{angbr|ē}}, to Classical {{angbr|ī}}.<ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|pp=53–55}}</ref> By the late Roman Empire, {{angbr|ae oe}} had merged with {{angbr|e ē}}. During the Classical period this sound change was present in some rural dialects, but deliberately avoided by well-educated speakers.<ref name="classical diphthongs" /> {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Diphthongs classified by beginning sound ! !! Front !! Back |- ! Close | || ui {{IPA|/ui̯/}} |- ! Mid | ei {{IPA|/ei̯/}}<br />eu {{IPA|/eu̯/}} || oe {{IPA|/oe̯/}}<br />ou {{IPA|/ou̯/}} |- ! Open | colspan="2" | ae {{IPA|/ae̯/}}<br />au {{IPA|/au̯/}} |} === Syllables === [[Syllable]]s in Latin are signified by the presence of diphthongs and [[vowel]]s. The number of syllables is the same as the number of vowel sounds.<ref name="Wheelock 7th ed." /> Further, if a consonant separates two vowels, it will go into the syllable of the second vowel. When there are two consonants between vowels, the last consonant will go with the second vowel. An exception occurs when a [[Phonetic transcription|phonetic]] stop and liquid come together. In this situation, they are thought to be a single consonant, and as such, they will go into the syllable of the second vowel.<ref name="Wheelock 7th ed." /> ==== Length ==== Syllables in Latin are considered either [[Syllable weight#Basic definitions|long or short]] (less often called "heavy" and "light" respectively). Within a word, a syllable may either be long by nature or long by position.<ref name="Wheelock 7th ed." /> A syllable is long by nature if it has a diphthong or a long vowel. On the other hand, a syllable is long by position if the vowel is followed by more than one consonant.<ref name="Wheelock 7th ed." /> ==== Stress ==== There are two rules that define which syllable is [[Stress (linguistics)|stressed]] in Classical Latin.<ref name="Wheelock 7th ed." /> # In a word with only two syllables, the emphasis will be on the first syllable. # In a word with more than two syllables, there are two cases. #* If the second-to-last syllable is long, that syllable will have stress. #* If the second-to-last syllable is not long, the syllable before that one will be stressed instead.<ref name="Wheelock 7th ed." /> Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. If you do not want your writing to be edited mercilessly, then do not submit it here. 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